End-product Manufacturers Research Articles

Evaluating the suitability of niches for additive manufacturing production: proposal for a numeric evaluation tool

Additive manufacturing (AM) is a wide set of technologies that can be used for many different scopes. AM is now a well-integrated prototyping and development tool in most industrial endeavours, while proper end-product manufacturing has only seen very specific niche successes. Given the complexity of AM’s matrix, which is full of discontinuities and non-trivial intercorrelations that play a relevant role in product design and development, it should not come as a surprise that not many end-product applications have succeeded in making use of it. This paper argues that understanding AM’s complex matrix and correctly identifying suitable production niches for it are key elements of this issue, a topic for which existing literature and tools are scarce. The analysis of AM’s status quo for end-product manufacturing and the review of existing approaches to integrate these technologies with product development are the basis used in this paper to propose a suitability assessment tool to fill this knowledge gap.

A New Approach to FRAND Royalty Determination in IoT Value Chains: Insights from Connected Cars

The complexities surrounding connected cars, especially the integration of Telematics Control Units (TCUs), intensify uncertainties within their value chains. Disputes arise regarding rightful licensees and applicable rates. Standard Essential Patent (SEP) holders push for royalties from end-product manufacturers, pegged to final product prices. Conversely, manufacturers and suppliers argue for licensing directed at suppliers, restricting royalties to the TCU’s price. This discord unfolded in the legal tussle involving Nokia (SEP holder), Daimler (car manufacturer), and its supplier, litigated in German courts. This context underscores the significance behind the EU Commission’s proposal on SEP licensing issued in April 2023. Addressing escalating disputes and uncertainties surrounding Fair, Reasonable, and Non-Discriminatory (FRAND) royalty rates, the proposal aims to establish transparency and predictability in SEP licensing. In our study, we have devised a proposal aimed at reshaping this landscape. We challenge the conventional linkage of SEP royalties solely to end-product prices within intricate value chains. Instead, we advocate tying SEP royalties to the economic value attributed to the SEP, specifically focusing on connectivity within Internet of Things (IoT) applications. Our proposal suggests granting licences to the party responsible for designing the IoT component, irrespective of its role in the value chain. This functionalistic approach also proposes establishing the royalty base through technical, measurable factors like data consumption. This model offers objectivity in determining FRAND rates, potentially fostering constructive negotiations and offering environmental benefits.

Improving the surface quality of additive manufactured polyamide parts using conventional treatment methods

Additive manufacturing processes have progressed in years past from not only being prototyping methods to also being end-product manufacturing methods. However, there are many challenges hindering higher industrial adoption rates of additive manufacturing such as low surface quality of the manufactured parts. Post-process surface treatment methods can play a key role in addressing this challenge. In this work, three mechanical methods were applied to selective laser-sintered polyamide 12 (PA12) parts with the aim of improving the surface quality. The effects of the methods regarding the surface integrity characteristics were evaluated. The results show improved surface roughness across all three methods: from initial Ra of 7.09 μm to 0.055 μm Ra, 0.28 μm Ra and 0.45 μm Ra by grinding, diamond turning and milling on the surfaces oriented upwards during fabrication respectively. Across the three methods, surface hardness was slightly reduced: with a maximum reduction of 2.5% by diamond turning.

Data-driven decarbonization framework with machine learning

Abstract Eight major supply chains contribute to more than 50% of the global greenhouse gas emissions (GHG). These supply chains range from raw materials to end-product manufacturing. Hence, it is critical to accurately estimate the carbon footprint of these supply chains, identify GHG hotspots, explain the factors that create the hotspots, and carry out what-if analysis to reduce the carbon footprint of supply chains. Towards this, we propose an enterprise decarbonization accelerator framework with a modular structure that automates carbon footprint estimation, identification of hotspots, explainability, and what-if analysis to recommend measures to reduce the carbon footprint of supply chains. To illustrate the working of the framework, we apply it to the cradle-to-gate extent of the palm oil supply chain of a leading palm oil producer. The framework identified that the farming stage is the hotspot in the considered supply chain. As the next level of analysis, the framework identified the hotspots in the farming stage and provided explainability on factors that created hotspots. We discuss the what-if scenarios and the recommendations generated by the framework to reduce the carbon footprint of the hotspots and the resulting impact on palm oil tree yield.

Research on warranties for different components in an open vertically integrated supply chain

How to set appropriate warranty periods for different components is a common problem for manufacturers who produce end products when pricing. This study investigates a pricing game between a vertically integrated manufacturer and an external end-product manufacturer with the vertically integrated manufacturer supplying the key component of the end product to the external end-product manufacturer and competing with the external end-product manufacturer in the terminal market as a leader. The two manufacturers make decisions on the warranty period for the key component and the end product without the key component respectively under a two-component structure. We assume that customers perceive product quality through warranty periods of different components and brand reputations of the manufacturers. The result shows that the manufacturer with a higher brand reputation has an incentive to offer a longer warranty period. However, due to the impact of corresponding warranty costs, there exist intervals of brand reputation in which the manufacturer provides a shorter warranty period for the key component or the end product without the key component than the competitor even though the brand reputation of this manufacturer is higher. The best choice for the vertically integrated manufacturer is to increase the key component wholesale price but keep the end product sale price unchanged when the brand reputation of the external end-product manufacturer gets stronger. Interestingly, the higher the brand reputation of the external end-product manufacturer, the greater the profit of the vertically integrated manufacturer. Related numerical examples and managerial insights are presented in this paper.

Electromechanical Characterization of Commercial Conductive Yarns for E-Textiles

With the development of smart and multi-functional textiles, conductive yarns are widely used in textiles. Conductive yarns can be incorporated into fabrics with traditional textile techniques, such as weaving, knitting and sewing. The electromechanical properties of conductive yarns are very different from conventional yarns, and they also affect the processability during end-product manufacturing processes. However, systematic evaluation of the electromechanical properties of commercial conductive yarns is still elusive. Different conductive materials and production methods for making conductive yarns lead to diverse electromechanical properties. In this work, three types of conductive yarn with different conductive materials and yarn structures were selected for electromechanical characterization. A total of 15 different yarns were analyzed. In addition, the change of resistance with strain was tested to simulate and predict the possible changes in electrical properties of the yarn during weaving, knitting, sewing and other end uses. It was found that Metal-based yarns have good electrical properties but poor mechanical properties. The mechanical properties of Metal-coated yarns are similar to conventional yarns, but their electrical properties are relatively poor. The data shown in this research is instructive for the subsequent processing (weaving, knitting, sewing, etc.) of yarns.

Simulation and experimental characterisation of a 3D-printed electromagnetic vibration sensor

Additive manufacturing, also known as 3D printing has already transformed from a rapid prototyping tool to a final end-product manufacturing technique. 3D printing can be used to develop various types of sensors. This paper investigates the ability to use the electromagnetic induction properties of 3D printed carbon-based filament for developing sensors. The paper presents a novel prototype vibration sensor which is 3D-printable, except for an included NdFeB magnet. Motion is detected from the voltage induced by the relative motion of the magnet. The devised vibration sensor is simulated using ANSYS, and a novel prototype is 3D-printed for physical testing to characterise and understand its electromagnetic properties. Simulation helped establish constraints for the design. Two types of experimental setups were physically tested, one setup with a magnet freely sliding inside a cylindrical cavity within an oscillating coil, and the other setup with a stationary coil and oscillating magnet. At a frequency of 10 Hz and a motion travel of about 12 mm, the induced voltage for the moving coil case varied from 5.4 mV RMS for pure sliding motion of the internal magnet to 22.1 mV RMS. The findings of this paper suggest that future sensors can be developed using the electromagnetic induction properties of the carbon-based filament.

Revisiting the Bizarre SEP Level of Licensing Antitrust Controversy

Standardized technologies are often embedded in both intermediate products (such as chipsets or modules) and end products (such as smartphones or connected cars) that incorporate the intermediate products as components. In principle, owners of patents covering such technologies (standard-essential patents or SEPs) could license their SEPs to the manufacturers of intermediate products, the end-product manufacturers or, to the extent possible, given patent exhaustion constraints, to both. Yet, in practice, they often choose to license at the end-product level only, while de facto not enforcing their patents on producers of intermediate goods or including ‘have made’ rights and exceptions in their licenses, so that intermediate product manufacturers are protected when selling to licensed end-product manufacturers. (See Section II.) This licensing practice is currently subject to scrutiny in various parts of the world. On 26 November 2020, the Düsseldorf Regional Court, as part of its assessment of the civil case...

Prediction of the tensile strength of polylactic acid fused deposition models using artificial neural network technique

Additive Manufacturing technology helps in building complex geometries without wastage of materials. Fused deposition modelling is the most widely used technology among them. In this paper, the tensile strength of fused deposition models with varying process parameters is predicted using Artificial Neural Network. Process parameters chosen are: nozzle temperature, layer thickness and infill speed. Design of experiments using Taguchi technique is made to create an L9 orthogonal array. Tensile strength of the Polylactic acid specimens developed using fused deposition modelling is experimentally investigated. This data set is used in Artificial Neural Network to train the network for predicting the tensile strength at various levels of nozzle temperature, layer thickness and infill speed. The effects of parameters influencing tensile strength is captured using Minitab software. Furthermore, confirmation experiment to validate the tensile strength predicted using Artificial Neural Network method is performed and is found to be in good agreement, within 5%. Property requirements of end use products depend on its application and its prediction will be useful for enhancing the potential of Additive Manufacturing from rapid prototyping to end product manufacturing.

Buyers’ switching intentions in a manufacturing supply chain: a migration theory perspective

Purpose The purpose of this paper is to identify the negative impact of an incumbent supplier pushing out a buyer, the positive effect of an alternative supplier pulling a buyer, and the mooring impact that prevents a buyer from switching to a supplier in terms of the push-pull-mooring (PPM) model of migration theory. In this context, this study considers a buyer as the immigrant, an incumbent supplier as the origin, an alternative supplier as the destination, and inertia as the hesitance to migrate. Design/methodology/approach This study collected survey data from 148 end-product manufacturers and first-tier suppliers. It tested whether the PPM model fit in a supply chain relationship (SCR) using the partial least squares structural equation modelling approach and SmartPLS package version 2.0.M3. Findings The results support all hypotheses for causal relationships among factors of cognitive, affect, and behavioural intentions of each PPM effect. This study identifies the relative importance of each effect on a buyer’s intention of switching an existing supplier. Originality/value This study presents a new perspective that enhances the understanding of a buyer’s behaviour towards a supplier by applying the PPM model of migration to a manufacturing SCR. It promotes interdisciplinary and integrated views as well as broadens the diversity of the results in the business-to-business context.

Standardizing the Smallest-Functional Unit: A Tier-Stacking Approach to Frand Royalty Rates

Apple's recent fight with Qualcomm, alleging that Qualcomm is overcharging apple to license Qualcomm's FRAND-encumbered standard essential patents (SEPs), raises an interesting issue regarding patent hold-up: whether a FRAND royalty rate should limit an SEP holder’s ability to extract larger royalties from end-product manufacturers — resulting from that manufacturer's increased sales prices due to unrelated, end-product advancements. This Paper advocates that uniformly assessing all FRAND-encumbered licenses against the smallest-functional unit would ameliorate this concern, and it further provides two methods for achieving this end while also avoiding issues of excessive royalty stacking.

Level Discrimination and FRAND Commitments Under EU Competition Law

Standards are of fundamental importance in our economy and competition law has an important role to play in ensuring that standard setting procedures are not distorted so as to result in negative effects on technological progress and social welfare. This article examines the practice of level discrimination, which occurs when the holder of a standard essential patent (SEP), having made a commitment to license the SEP on fair, reasonable and non-discriminatory (FRAND) terms, decides to license only undertakings at a given level of the supply chain, typically, the end-product manufacturers, rather than the component manufacturers. Level discrimination is significant in practice and raises novel questions in the interpretation and application of Article 102. This article examines the economic and policy arguments for and against level discrimination and discusses whether the practice may amount to an abuse of a dominant position under Article 102 TFEU, distinguishing the position of practising and non-practising entities.

Managing the change of strategy from customisation to product platform: case of Mabuchi Motors, a leading DC motor manufacturer

This paper analyses how component manufacturers can change from a customisation to a product platform strategy. This change requires component manufacturers to deal with issues related to the product architecture of the component itself and to the product development process required to sustain the platform strategy. This paper presents an in–depth analysis of the change in product strategy of Mabuchi Motors, a specialised DC motor manufacturer that sells DC motors for an average of 50 yen and that has enjoyed long–term stability and high profitability. The process involved in changing product strategy is analysed from two perspectives, the design concept (product architecture) of the DC motor, and its product development process. Academically, this study may contribute to enhancing the quality of product platform strategies by expanding these strategies from end product manufacturers to component manufacturers.

Evolution and Firm Survival in Vertically Related Populations: The Case of the German Piano Industry

Research on the evolution of industries has devoted little attention to the development of vertical structures of firms and the emergence of new, specialized supplier populations along the value chain of an industry as industries mature. The change of the vertical industry structure and the co-evolution of subpopulations of suppliers lead to the creation of an interdependent community of organizational populations. However, the impact of vertically related upstream suppliers on the survival of downstream end product manufacturers remains under-researched. This study addresses this research gap and explores the impact of upstream suppliers on downstream survival of all German piano manufacturers (1705-1929). Quantitative event history analyses show that the number of suppliers of the most important core components exhibits a positive effect on firm survival of piano manufacturers. However, the number of firms in other supplier subpopulations does not always affect the exit rates of quality and non-quality end product manufacturers in the same way, which is probably related to the different degree of vertical integration of these two types of firms. The study contributes to the understanding of the forces driving industry evolution and firm survival and makes it easier to predict long-term industrial developments.

Evolution and Firm Survival in Vertically Related Populations: The German Piano Industry

Research on the evolution of industries has devoted little attention to the development of vertical structures of firms and the emergence of new, specialized supplier populations along the value chain of an industry as industries mature. The change of the vertical industry structure and the co-evolution of subpopulations of suppliers lead to the creation of an interdependent community of organizational populations. However, the impact of vertically related upstream suppliers on the survival of downstream end product manufacturers remains under-researched. This study addresses this research gap and explores the impact of upstream suppliers on downstream survival of all German piano manufacturers (1705-1929). Quantitative event history analyses show that the number of suppliers of the most important core components exhibits a positive effect on firm survival of piano manufacturers. However, the number of firms in other supplier subpopulations does not always affect the exit rates of quality and non-quality end product manufacturers in the same way, which is probably related to the different degree of vertical integration of these two types of firms. The study contributes to the understanding of the forces driving industry evolution and firm survival and makes it easier to predict long-term industrial developments.

Management Insights

Management Insights

The Persistent Problem of Purposeful Availment

For the second time in twenty-five years, personal jurisdiction has perplexed the U.S. Supreme Court. The problem is purposeful availment. All of the Justices agree that specific jurisdiction does not exist without purposeful availment, but the Court could not cobble together a majority opinion in J. McIntyre Machinery, Ltd. v. Nicastro to clarify what purposeful availment means or what it requires.This Article sets forth a simple — yet meaningful and necessary — solution. Purposeful availment is best understood by its negative: no court should find a nonresident defendant subject to personal jurisdiction for a contact with the forum state that the defendant could not reasonably prevent. Put another way, where it is not reasonably feasible for a defendant to sever its connection with the state, purposeful availment does not exist. Conversely, where it is reasonably feasible for a defendant to prevent its contact with a state but it has not done so, there is presumptively purposeful availment and, subject to the fairness balancing, specific jurisdiction.This principle is consistent with the understanding reached by the Court more than twenty-five years ago and shared by a majority of the current Justices that personal jurisdiction is an individual liberty interest that is protected by the Due Process Clause. Because it is an individual liberty interest, the purposeful availment requirement must be applied in such a manner that an economic actor can structure its conduct so as to avoid subjecting itself to jurisdiction in a disfavored forum.Application of this principle leads to clear, but certain to be controversial, resolution of several questions left unresolved by the Court in McIntyre v. Nicastro. It also makes clear that Nicastro itself was wrongly decided. First, component part manufacturers generally do not control the distribution and point of sale of the end product into which their component part is incorporated. Thus, absent some additional conduct targeting the forum state, component part manufacturers do not purposefully avail themselves of a particular state where the end product is sold, even where there is a regular flow of a large quantum of the component parts into that state. Second, end product manufacturers retain nearly complete control over the initial point of sale of their products. Thus, an end product manufacturer has purposefully availed itself of every state where the product is sold to consumers — even where the manufacturer sold the product to a distributor who sold the product to a retailer who sold the product to a consumer. Third, a manufacturer who markets its product nationwide has purposefully availed itself of every state where the product is sold and causes injury.

Light emitting diodes reliability review

The increasing demand for light emitting diodes (LEDs) has been driven by a number of application categories, including display backlighting, communications, medical services, signage, and general illumination. The construction of LEDs is somewhat similar to microelectronics, but there are functional requirements, materials, and interfaces in LEDs that make their failure modes and mechanisms unique. This paper presents a comprehensive review for industry and academic research on LED failure mechanisms and reliability to help LED developers and end-product manufacturers focus resources in an effective manner. The focus is on the reliability of LEDs at the die and package levels. The reliability information provided by the LED manufacturers is not at a mature enough stage to be useful to most consumers and end-product manufacturers. This paper provides the groundwork for an understanding of the reliability issues of LEDs across the supply chain. We provide an introduction to LEDs and present the key industries that use LEDs and LED applications. The construction details and fabrication steps of LEDs as they relate to failure mechanisms and reliability are discussed next. We then categorize LED failures into thirteen different groups related to semiconductor, interconnect, and package reliability issues. We then identify the relationships between failure causes and their associated mechanisms, issues in thermal standardization, and critical areas of investigation and development in LED technology and reliability.

Developing a supply chain disruption analysis model: Application of colored Petri-nets

As a result of globalization in the past two decades, supply chains are encountering more unknown conditions and risks. One important category of risks is disruptions that block material flowing through a supply chain and that may even result in end-product manufacturing failure. This paper uses a Petri nets-based model as a tool to understand the dissemination of disruptions and to trace the operational performance of a supply chain. The presented approach models how changes propagate through a supply chain and calculates the impact of disruptions on supply chain attributes by concluding the states that are obtainable from a given initial status in the supply chain.

Where differentiating automobile manufacturers go wrong: strategic challenges posed by increased outsourcing

Car manufacturers outsource production of individual components to large module suppliers, saving on costs in the short term. In the medium term, however, they sacrifice competencies. The competitive strategy they choose – either cost leadership or differentiation – determines how this conflict is resolved. This article examines the shift in competencies to module suppliers, and the likely reactions of end product manufacturers, particularly those pursuing a differentiation strategy. The article derives potential strategic actions going forward based on transaction cost theory and core competency theory, and conducts a content analysis to examine them empirically.