End-of-life Vehicles Research Articles

Development of a performance evaluation tool for end-of-life vehicle management system implementation using the analytic hierarchy process.

The management of end-of-life vehicles (ELVs) conserves natural resources, provides economic benefits, and reduces water, air, and soil pollution. In an effort to adequately manage flow of ELVs, modern infrastructure is considered a prerequisite. Thus, development of an effective performance evaluation tool for monitoring and continuous improvement of ELV management systems is strongly desired. In this paper, a performance evaluation tool is proposed for ELV management system implementation, based on the analytic hierarchy process. A real-life case study in Malaysia was conducted in order to demonstrate the potential and applicability of the presented methodology. The scores of eight key success factors in establishing an ELV management system (i.e., management responsibility, performance management, capacity management, resource management, stakeholders' responsibility, education and awareness, improvement and enforcement, and cost management) are presented. The overall score of the ELV management system implementation in Malaysia is equal to 2.13. Therefore, its performance level is average. The presented multi-criteria decision analysis tool can be of assistance not only to stakeholders in the Malaysian ELV management system, but also to vehicle recycling managers from other countries in order to monitor and continuously improve their ELV management systems.

Improvement in Thermomechanical Reliability of Low Cost Sn-Based BGA Interconnects by Cr Addition

The exemption of Pb-bearing automobile electronics in the End of Life Vehicle (ELV) directive has recently expired, bring an urgent need to find Pb-free alloys that can maintain good performance under high-temperature and vibration conditions for automobile application. In this study, a new lead-free solder, Sn-0.7Cu-0.2Cr (wt.%) alloy, was developed. To evaluate the thermomechanical reliability of the new solder alloy in automobile electronics, a thermal shock test was performed. The results show that the presence of Cr in solder inhibits the growth of interfacial Cu3Sn layer and the formation of Kirkendall voids, which effectively improves the joint reliability under intense thermal shock condition compared with the commercial SAC305 and SC07 solders. Specifically, the shear strength of the Sn-0.7Cu-0.2Cr/Cu solder joints was higher by 23% and 44% than that of SAC305 and SC07 solder joints after 2000 cycles of thermal shock at 1 m/s shear speed.

Dismantlers’ dilemma in end-of-life vehicle recycling markets: a system dynamics model

Stringent environmental regulations, improving technology, and growing incomes have shortened vehicle life-cycles that leads to increasing number of end-of life vehicles (ELVs). ELVs form a valuable source of materials when they are recycled in an efficient manner. Regulated ELV recycling markets for ELV recycling ensure an efficient material recovery, unlike unregulated markets which are present predominantly in emerging economies. We analyze ELV recycling in an unregulated market through a system dynamics model. These markets are close to perfectly competitive markets with low enter and exit barriers for dismantlers, and the scrap from dismantled vehicles is traded as a commodity. Dismantlers entry and exit decisions—dismantlers’ dilemma—are based on profitability. We conjecture that the dismantlers’ dilemma constrains the dismantling capacity and fluctuates the scrap supply in unregulated recycling markets. Using the Indian data, the simulation results show that the unregulated market will lead to lower dismantling capacity, which may further worsen by increase in dismantling costs. From our analysis, we suggest that lowering dismantling costs through coordination among the dismantlers and providing support for scrap prices through regulation can improve the dismantling situation in these markets.

End‐of‐life vehicle recovery factors: Malaysian stakeholders' views and future research needs

AbstractIn this study, we identify the factors that affect end‐of‐life vehicle (ELV) recovery effectiveness in order to develop an improved ELV recovery model in Malaysia. We derived these factors from a literature survey and on‐site interviews with representatives of selected local companies who are the key stakeholders in ELV management. We used the system dynamics approach to identify the link between the ELV recovery factors and recovery effectiveness, and we present the results in the form of an aftermarket cognitive map, which provides a pictorial view of the interrelationships between the ELV recovery factors. Indeed, we found that the factors conform well with those identified in previous studies. We believe that the improved ELV recovery model will be beneficial to product designers and stakeholders in the ELV recovery network, and encourage them to take action in accordance with the National Automotive Policy in line with the ELV directive.

Incorporating remanufacturing into the end-of-life vehicles directive: current presence and the waste problem

Within the End-of-Life Vehicles (ELV) directive, various terminology and practices are outlined to ultimately divert waste from landfill, including reuse, recycle, recovery, treatment, prevention and economic operators. Remanufacturing terminology is not explicitly stated however. Further, leading global automotive remanufacturers, have recently agreed upon a collective definition of what constitutes automotive remanufacturing. With a view to establishing remanufacturing as a stand-alone process within the ELV directive going forward, this research analyses where remanufacturing is currently situated within the ELV directive, highlighting obstacles, with a strong focus on ‘waste terminology’, of directly incorporating remanufacturing into the ELV directive and presents guidance on incorporating remanufacturing moving forward. By ignoring the concept of waste, this study found that remanufacturing processes are generally classed under reuse, recycling and recovery terminology with remanufacturing also having a tenuous relationship with treatment facilities and economic operators. In addition to highlighting the issues caused by remanufacturing spanning across recycle and reuse terminology, by incorporating waste, this research also found that automotive associations definition of remanufacturing is not able to be incorporated into the ELV directive directly. A workable solution, taking both the objectives of the ELV directive and the view of the automotive associations into consideration, was however found, and is presented in this work.

Comprehensive analysis of 942 organic micro-pollutants in settled dusts from northern Vietnam: pollution status and implications for human exposure

Contamination status of 942 organic micro-pollutants was examined for settled dust samples collected from an informal end-of-life vehicle (ELV) recycling site and an urban area in northern Vietnam. One hundred and ninety-five contaminants including 73 domestic chemicals, 79 industrial chemicals and 43 pesticides were detected at least once in our samples. Total concentrations (median and range) of organic pollutants in dusts from ELV site and Hanoi urban area were 20,000 (5600–93,000) and 21,000 (12,000–26,000) ng g−1, respectively. Pyrethroid insecticides, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and plasticizers were the major contributors to the overall contamination levels. Concentrations of some specific chemical classes such as petroleum alkanes, PAHs, heat storage and transfer agents, and compounds leached from tires in dusts from the recycling area were significantly higher than those from the urban area, suggesting their emission during ELV dismantling and stockpiling processes. Human exposures to selected organic pollutants were also estimated by calculating daily intake doses to evaluate their hazard quotients (HQs). Although almost HQs were markedly lower than the critical value of 1, potential health risk caused by multiple organic contaminants via dust ingestion and other exposure pathways should be considered in future studies.

What about the circular economy of vehicles in the U.S.? An extension of the analysis done in the EU by Saidani et al. (2017)

Automobile ownership worldwide has exceeded 1 billion since 2010, and the U.S. plus the EU account for 50% of this total (Sakai et al. 2014). According to Wilson (2017), CEO of the U.S. Automotive Recyclers Association (ARA): “Different countries are on different parts of the path related to end-of-life management of vehicles. By looking at how other countries deal with their industry, one can choose some parts of the path that are desirable and try to avoid some of the paths that are unpleasant.” It is with this perspective that this communication initiates a discussion of the appropriate transfers and applications of recommended practices and know-how from one industrial sector (the automotive sector) to another (the heavy-duty and off-road (HDOR) sector) and from a geographic region (the EU) to another (the U.S.). Saidani et al. (2017) discussed the best industrial practices and remaining challenges for a circular economy (CE) of light and heavy vehicles in the EU. The end-of-life (EoL) business practices and regulations imposed on these sectors in the EU are considerably different than the same sectors in the U.S., and thus provide an interesting comparison case. To develop this juxtaposition, an updated literature review as well as industrial field investigations were done in the U.S. with the aim of providing supplementary insights to the questions raised by Saidani et al. (2017), including: (i) to what extent is CE achieved and implemented in the automotive and HDOR sectors, (ii) what industrial practices and regulations are prevalent and supportive of CE goals, and (iii) what are the main challenges both regions have to face for an enhanced CE of EoL vehicles?

Feasibility Study on S-Band Microwave Radiation and 3D-Thermal Infrared Imaging Sensor-Aided Recognition of Polymer Materials from End-of-Life Vehicles.

With the increase the worldwide consumption of vehicles, end-of-life vehicles (ELVs) have kept rapidly increasing in the last two decades. Metallic parts and materials of ELVs can be easily reused and recycled, but the automobile shredder residues (ASRs), of which elastomer and plastic materials make up the vast majority, are difficult to recycle. ASRs are classified as hazardous materials in the main industrial countries, and are required to be materially recycled up to 85–95% by mass until 2020. However, there is neither sufficient theoretical nor practical experience for sorting ASR polymers. In this research, we provide a novel method by using S-Band microwave irradiation together with 3D scanning as well as infrared thermal imaging sensors for the recognition and sorting of typical plastics and elastomers from the ASR mixture. In this study, an industrial magnetron array with 2.45 GHz irradiation was utilized as the microwave source. Seven kinds of ELV polymer (PVC, ABS, PP, EPDM, NBR, CR, and SBR) crushed scrap residues were tested. After specific power microwave irradiation for a certain time, the tested polymer materials were heated up to different extents corresponding to their respective sensitivities to microwave irradiation. Due to the variations in polymer chemical structure and additive agents, polymers have different sensitivities to microwave radiation, which leads to differences in temperature rises. The differences of temperature increase were obtained by a thermal infrared sensor, and the position and geometrical features of the tested scraps were acquired by a 3D imaging sensor. With this information, the scrap material could be recognized and then sorted. The results showed that this method was effective when the tested polymer materials were heated up to more than 30 °C. For full recognition of the tested polymer scraps, the minimum temperature variations of 5 °C and 10.5 °C for plastics and elastomers were needed, respectively. The sorting efficiency was independent of particle sizes but depended on the power and time of the microwave irradiation. Generally, more than 75% (mass) of the tested polymer materials could be successfully recognized and sorted under an irradiation power of 3 kW. Plastics were much more insensitive to microwave irradiation than elastomers. With this method, the tested mixture of the plastic group (PVC, ABS, PP) and the mixture of elastomer group (EPDM, NBR, CR, and SBR) could be fully separated with an efficiency of 100%.

Recycling of end-of-life vehicles (ELVs) for building products: Concept of processing framework from automotive to construction industries in Malaysia

End-of-life vehicle (ELV) waste management and its immeasurable environmental impacts are the subjects of global concern. This study proposes a new concept of a processing framework to utilise ELV waste from automotive to construction industries by starting a new trend of circular economy applications to improve ELV recyclability. The research focuses on building a strong collaboration between automotive and construction industries to manage ELV waste in Malaysia. A systematic review approach based on classification and comparison methods was utilised to synthesise the findings through critical analysis. The concept was developed on the basis of existing ELV policies and legislation, processing framework, waste management and recycling possibilities for converting ELVs into building products. The findings corroborate that ELV waste in the dismantling and shredding operations can be utilised by the construction industry. The analysis and proposed framework established a source of information that provides a new paradigm for prioritising building product development and related policies in Malaysia. This research will provide a viable option for reducing the disposal problems and curbing the dependence on raw materials in Malaysia.

Downcycling in automobile recycling process: A thermodynamic assessment

Current metal recycling techniques for end-of-life vehicles (ELV) are based on mechanical treatments to mainly recover steel, aluminum, copper, and zinc alloys. Such techniques facilitate compliance with the ELV European Directive (2000/53/EC) target of achieving recyclability quotes of up to 85%. However, a vehicle can use more than 60 metals, some of them considered critical by international institutions, which end up downcycled as part of alloys or ultimately in landfills. This paper undertakes an assessment of the downcycling degree of minor metals in conventional vehicles using a SEAT Leon III model as a case study. Downcycling is assessed from a thermodynamic point of view using thermodynamic rarity, an indicator that is used as a weighting factor for the metals used in the car. The thermodynamic rarity of metals is a function of the quality of the minerals from which they stem, considering their relative abundance in Nature and the energy intensity required to extract and process them. The results demonstrated that, even if the quantity of downcycled metals only represents 4.5% of the total metal weight of the vehicle, in rarity terms, this figure increases to approximately 27%. This indicates that an important portion of high-quality metals becomes functionally lost. The most downcycled vehicle subsystems are in order: (1) accessories, (2) electrical and electronic equipment, (3) exhaust system, and (4) engine. Further, the most downcycled parts are: speed sensor, control unit, antenna amplifier, airbag circuit, temperature and rain sensors, front pipe, particle filter, and turbo parts.

Investigation on the low-temperature pyrolysis of automotive shredder residue (ASR) for energy recovery and metal recycling

The automotive shredder residue (ASR) or shredder light fraction (SLF) is the remaining fraction from the metal recovery of end-of-life vehicles (ELVs). While processes for metal recovery from ELVs are well developed, the similar process for ASR remains a challenge. In this work, low-temperature pyrolysis of the ASR fraction was investigated under the assumption that a low temperature and inert environment would enhance the metal recovery, i.e. the metals would not be further oxidised from their original state and the organic material could be separated from the metals in the form of volatiles and char. Pyrolysis experiments were performed in a tube reactor operating at 300, 400 and 500 °C. The gas and oil obtained by pyrolysis were analysed by micro-GC (micro-Gas Chromatography) and GC/MS (Gas Chromatography/Mass Spectrometry), respectively. It was found that the gas produced contained a high amount of CO2, limiting the energy recovery from this fraction. The oil consisted of a high concentration of phenolic and aromatic compounds. The solid residue was crushed and fractionated into different particle sizes for further characterization. The pyrolysis temperature of 300 °C was found to be insufficient for metal liberation, while the char was easier to crush at tested temperature of 400 and 500 °C. The intermediate temperature of 400 °C is then suggested for the process to keep the energy consumption low.

Vehicles and Critical Raw Materials: A Sustainability Assessment Using Thermodynamic Rarity

SummaryThe changing material composition of cars represents a challenge for future recycling of end‐of‐life vehicles (ELVs). Particularly, as current recycling targets are based solely on mass, critical metals increasingly used in cars might be lost during recycling processes, due to their small mass compared to bulk metals such as Fe and Al. We investigate a complementary indicator to material value in passenger vehicles based on exergy. The indicator is called thermodynamic rarity and represents the exergy cost (GJ) needed for producing a given material from bare rock to the market. According to our results, the thermodynamic rarity of critical metals used in cars, in most cases, supersedes that of the bulk metals that are the current focus of ELV recycling. While Fe, Al, and Cu account for more than 90% of the car's metal content, they only represent 60% of the total rarity of a car. In contrast, while Mo, Co, Nb, and Ni account for less than 1% of the car's metal content, their contribution to the car's rarity is larger than 7%. Rarity increases with the electrification level due to the greater amount of critical metals used; specifically, due to an increased use of (1) Al alloys are mainly used in the car's body‐in‐white of electric cars for light‐weighting purposes, (2) Cu in car electronics, and (3) Co, Li, Ni, and rare earth metals (La, Nd, and Pr) in Li‐ion and NiMH batteries.

Improving end of life vehicle’s management practices: An economic assessment through system dynamics

Abstract End-of-Life Vehicles (ELVs), together with Waste from Electrical and Electronic Equipments (WEEE), are one of the most valuable sources of secondary raw materials. Their reuse for producing new goods is a well-known topic in the literature. However, End-of-Life (EoL) strategies implemented by companies remained the same since the last century, completely based on materials market prices. Progressively, this way of doing exposed the entire ELV recovery chain to a series of unwanted market risks. The purpose of this paper is proposing an alternative way to cope with the material’s mix evolution in cars through the recovery of automotive electronic components. By applying an already existing model based on the System Dynamics (SD) methodology to the Italian context, a real time comparison of several configurations (scenarios) of the national ELV recovery chain has been implemented. Results quantified the expected impact on profits of both dismantlers and shredders in about 9 and 7.6 billion euros within fifty years. This way, dismantlers should lead the new recovery process, considering the highest increase in profits. However, the level of risk related with this option has been hypothesised as higher than a scenario with shredders leading the business.

Designing and verifying a disassembly line approach to cope with the upsurge of end-of-life vehicles in China

An upsurge of end-of-life vehicles (ELVs) is emerging in China, which means a potential monumental environmental crisis. The approach of disassembly line is expected to be an effective solution to such increasing volumes. Due to the complexity of vehicle product and uncertainties of disassembly processes, a complete set of disassembly line system should be taken into detailed consideration. We have designed and constructed a novel disassembly line using a flexible transition technique with the objective of complete disassembly. Prior to productivity testing, comparative Arena-based simulations on four scenarios have been performed and finally a best scenario is selected. The results show that the guarantee of cycle time is the key to meet the productivity target of 30,000 vehicles for one year. To achieve it, some constructive measures such as forcible entry tools are given.

Characterization and Photodegradation of Polybrominated Diphenyl Ethers in Car Seat Fabrics from End-of-Life Vehicles.

In this study, we examined the photodegradation of decabromodiphenyl ether (BDE-209) on the surface of car seat covers from end-of-life vehicles (ELVs). Samples were collected at two car dismantling facilities in Sweden and cover car models from 1989 to 1998. The content of polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) in nine real samples (fabric and polyurethane foam) was first characterized. Fabric samples that did not contain BDE-209 were then spiked with BDE-209 and irradiated in the laboratory and under sunlight. Photoproducts were identified using high performance liquid chromatography coupled to electrospray ionization mass spectrometer (HPLC-ESI-Orbitrap-MS), whereas volatile products were analyzed by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS). Similar photodegradation rates and oxidation products were observed in fabric samples irradiated in the laboratory and those collected from ELVs. Estimated half-life of BDE-209 on fabric inside vehicles ranged from 3 to 6 years. Thirteen major photoproducts were identified as lower brominated products, hydroxylated BDEs, brominated and hydroxylated dibenzofurans (PBDFs) and dioxins (PBDDs). Furthermore, several photoproducts were found to be transferable into water, particularly bromophenols and hydroxylated BDEs, and others into gas phase, such as bromomethanol and 1,2-dibromoethane. This should be taken into consideration for better estimating exposure to PBDEs and to develop strategies for ELV recycling.

General Regression Neural Network and Artificial-Bee-Colony Based General Regression Neural Network Approaches to the Number of End-of-Life Vehicles in China

Establishing the number of vehicles that will reach the end of their useful lives in the coming years will substantially affect recycling management and recycling policy. Thus, how to construct a reasonable, accurate model to forecast a product’s end of life is important for recycling management. To improve forecast accuracy for vehicle end of life, this paper proposes two approaches: a general regression neural network (GRNN) and an optimized GRNN based on an artificial bee colony. These approaches are applied to forecast the number of end-of-life vehicles (ELVs) in China. In addition, the proposed models are used to predict the number of ELVs that will appear in China from 2016 to 2020 by combining the forecasting data for the main factors that influence the number of such vehicles. Theoretical and simulation results indicate that the described approaches are effective and feasible. This paper provides practical data support and a better theoretical model for researchers, government managers, and industrial engineers faced with the problems posed by ELVs.

End-of-life-vehicle recycling in Germany: alternative for the reduction of CO<SUB align="right">2 emissions

The recycling of end-of-life-vehicles (ELVs) involves different processes generally in several locations, connecting different companies. In 2015 a new EU legislation introduced for ELVs recycling and recovery rates of 85% and 95%, respectively. In the same year Germany presented for ELVs a recycling rate of 87.7% and a recovery rate of 95.8%. Nevertheless, significant information about German ELV recycling are aggregated. Regional differences, logistics among recycling facilities and potentials for improvement are not disclosed. Within a context of reducing global warming, the objectives of this research are: a) verifying the current situation of ELVs in two districts located in Germany; b) proposing alternatives for the reduction of CO2 emissions. The results show significant CO2 emission savings can be achieved with the optimization of logistics. This research can support local authorities, recycling companies and environmental organizations to look for possibilities of reducing environmental impacts with ELVs in their regions.

End-of-life-vehicle recycling in Germany: alternative for the reduction of CO<SUB align="right">2 emissions

The recycling of end-of-life-vehicles (ELVs) involves different processes generally in several locations, connecting different companies. In 2015 a new EU legislation introduced for ELVs recycling and recovery rates of 85% and 95%, respectively. In the same year Germany presented for ELVs a recycling rate of 87.7% and a recovery rate of 95.8%. Nevertheless, significant information about German ELV recycling are aggregated. Regional differences, logistics among recycling facilities and potentials for improvement are not disclosed. Within a context of reducing global warming, the objectives of this research are: a) verifying the current situation of ELVs in two districts located in Germany; b) proposing alternatives for the reduction of CO2 emissions. The results show significant CO2 emission savings can be achieved with the optimization of logistics. This research can support local authorities, recycling companies and environmental organizations to look for possibilities of reducing environmental impacts with ELVs in their regions.

Reuse scenarios of tires textile fibers: an environmental evaluation

End of Life Tires (ELT) constitute a major portion of End of life Vehicles (ELV). The treatment process of ELTs is primarily aimed at recovering steel and rubber, which jointly represent the main portion of the ELT material and are currently applied in different sectors. During the treatment of ELTs, other sub-products are generated in significant quantities (about 10-15% in weight), as textile fibers that currently are landfilled or used for energy recovery. The aim of this study is a comparative evaluation of the environmental impacts related to three different end of life scenarios for the textile fibers. In addition to landfilling and incineration, this study considers the possibility to reuse textile fibers as reinforcement in bituminous conglomerates. Results obtained through the Life Cycle Assessment study confirms that the reuse scenario leads to a relevant reduction of impacts in terms of Global Warming Potential. However, by considering other environmental metrics the reuse scenario is not always the less impactful one.

The Impact of Joining Choices on Vehicle Recycling Systems

Stricter vehicle emissions legislation has driven significant reduction in environmental impact of the vehicle use phase through increasing use of lightweight materials and multi-material concepts to reduce the vehicle mass. The joining techniques used for multi-material designs has led to reduced efficiency of the current shredder-based recycling practices. Although the commonly used Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) method is effective in assessing the environmental impacts of vehicles, there is a lack of consideration for the changing material and joining trends, and their delayed impact on the end-of-life vehicles (ELV) recyclability. This paper evaluates the temporal effects between vehicle designs and recycling phases using the System Dynamics approach. The behavioural patterns of the vehicle recycling systems show that the commonly used multi-material joining choices have led to increasing impurities and valuable material losses during ELV recycling, that can be characterised to well-known system archetypes: “Fixes that Fail” and “Shifting the Burden”.