Britannica Research Articles

Shakespear’s Employment of Malapropism in “Much ado about Nothing”and The Merchant of Venice”

Malapropism, according to the Encyclopedia Britannica, is a linguistic mistake occurs when one term is replaced with another that sounds similar but has a different meaning. The current article aims to find out how malapropism is used in Shakespear’s “Much ado about Nothing “and “The Merchant of Venice “and to investigate the most common type of malapropism used in these two plays .The article mainly draws on Fay and Cutler’s(1977) division of malapropism to analyze the selected data. The study concludes that malapropism is used by the plays’ characters basically to create a sense of humor by using a word or a phrase that is different from what they intended to say .It was also found that classical malapropism is the most common used type in both selected plays.

Encyclopedias, Information Overload, and the Intellectual Division of Labor in Early America

Abstract: This article examines the history of encyclopedias in North America and Britain during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries to foreground wider shifts in knowledge formation and organization caused by a growing perception of information overload. Tracing the Enlightenment manifestations of this concept, which is more typically seen as characteristic of twenty-first century digital culture, the article considers how attempts by Adam Ferguson and Adam Smith to establish an intellectual model of the division of labor in Scotland migrated to and were reworked in the early United States. This transition is explored through analysis of the Philadelphian publisher Thomas Dobson's Encyclopaedia; or a Dictionary of Arts, Sciences, and Miscellaneous Literature (1788–98), which reprinted and added to the third edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica (1787–97). Dobson's Encyclopaedia is situated in the context of: older traditions of synoptic writing practiced by figures like Cotton Mather, which retained a belief in the possibility of all-encompassing knowledge collection; emerging experiments by eighteenth-century encyclopedia makers with presentation and structure, designed to better order complex bodies of information and accommodate new data; and current debates around information democracy and management centered on Wikipedia, which indicate key points of change and continuity in the extended history of the encyclopedia form's struggle to be both comprehensive and up-to-date.

The Divergent Effect of Competition on Platforms: Deterring Recruits, Motivating Converts

Knowledge platforms differ in how they source their knowledge; they can be categorized as traditional (e.g., Encyclopedia Britannica, Guide Michelin) or crowdsourced (e.g., Wikipedia, Yelp). Although research has compared and contrasted the two, we study how they compete with one another. In particular, we focus on how competition from traditional platforms affects volunteers’ contributions to crowdsourced platforms. We propose a divergent effect: competition increases individual contributions from volunteers who were already active before the entry of any competitor (pre-entry contributors). However, competition also hinders recruitment and therefore leads to a decrease in total contributions from the set of volunteers who are new to the platform in a given time period (newly recruited contributors). We suggest the first effect is driven by pre-entry contributors’ ideological attachment, whereas the second is driven by lower awareness of the platform postcompetitive entry. To test our theory, we leverage and examine how the phased entry of Google Maps in different countries affects contributions to OpenStreetMap, a crowdsourced mapping platform. We find the hypothesized divergent effects and provide suggestive evidence of the underlying mechanisms. We contribute to research on crowdsourcing, volunteers’ willingness to contribute, platform competition, and on the effect of competition on organizations more broadly. Funding: The authors acknowledge the financial support of the INSEAD Alumni Fund. Supplemental Material: The online appendices are available at https://doi.org/10.1287/stsc.2022.0125 .

D. P. Svyatopolk-Mirsky on Slavs

The article highlights the place of the Slavs in the work of D. P. Svyatopolk-Mirsky, first a Eurasianist and then a Marxist. The key role of Russian studies in his Slavic studies is noted. It is argued that the vast majority of Svyatopolk-Mirsky’s thoughts and assessments regarding the history of Russian literature have not yet been fully studied. Significant results on Ukrainian studies were presented in his articles of the 1920s and in an article in the Encyclopedia Britannica; Svyatopolk-Mirsky was one of the first to highlight the problems of Belarusian studies there. His legacy as a (geo)political thinker and researcher of culture and literature of other Slavic peoples, though unevenly represented throughout his body of work, is considered and evaluated: for example, a lot has been written by Svyatopolk-Mirsky about the Poles, and almost nothing about the southern Slavs, but still, when considering them, one can find not only accurate observations and assessments, but also original ideas.

English Language Teaching- A Theoretical Perspective

Language, the divine gift of God, is man’s finest asset. Language distinguishes human beings from animals. Language is an instrument of thought to the philosopher. By using language, people communicate themselves and sharing their ideas, feelings and sorrows.Language is a form of behaviourto the sociologist and form of activity to the psychologist. Webster (1984)is of the view that, “Language is audible; articulate human speech is produced by the action of the tongue and adjacent vocal organs”. Jespersen(1966) defines language as “a set of human habits, the purpose of which is to give expression to thoughts and feelings”. It is inferred that language is purely human, a vehicle of thoughts, expression or communication of ideas and feelings.In the Encyclopedia Britannica language is defined as “a system of conventional spoken or written symbols by means of which human beings, as members of a social group and participants in its culture, communicate”. This makes it clear that language is a human quality, a social activity and means of communication of ideas, feelings and thought. Englishas a foreign language started life in India due to its association with the British colonizer. In the closing years of twentieth century, English began to emerge as the global language and the Indian classroom was transformed because of the change in the environment of the learner.The present paper tries exploring English language teaching in school and college curriculum employing methods of language teaching and Audio visual aids in terms of teaching of English

Shakespeare’s Epistemology and the Problem of Truth

The Encyclopedia Britannica defines epistemology as “the philosophical study of the nature, origin, and limits of human knowledge.” What, according to Shakespeare, was the origin of human knowledge? Various critics have attempted to understand Shakespeare’s epistemology, but most have ignored the blatant evidence in the plays that Shakespeare was, in fact, somewhat obsessed with epistemology. Digging deeper, it would seem that his attitude to the subject was informed by his readings of obscure Greek and Roman philosophers, especially Gorgias. But given that the man from Stratford apparently could not read Greek (it was not taught in 16th-century provincial schools), how could he have been able to read these theoretical and scholarly works? In this essay, I argue that the first Greek sophist, Gorgias, whose work is often associated with the skepticism delivered to early modern England by Sextus Empiricus, was a huge influence on the true author. I show that during the Enlightenment, there was an intellectual war between early scientists who studied nature and the ancient faithful who studied God. Shakespeare neatly skirted this dilemma by focusing on the possibility that art might itself created its own reality — one that was not immutable ‘truth’ in the traditional sense but rather a very mutable fiction that must always necessarily be viewed with suspicion. In the modern world, with the advent of ‘fake news’ — and a new and unsettling relativity concerning facts — Shakespeare’s bold experiment in epistemology becomes startlingly relevant.

Realism and Reconstruction: A Comparative Perspective

Realism and Reconstruction: A Comparative Perspective

Identifying grey-rhino in eminent technologies via patent analysis

Abstract Purpose Following the typical features of the grey-rhino event as predictability and profound influence, we attempt to find a special pattern called the grey-rhino in eminent technologies via patent analysis. Design/methodology/approach We propose to combine triadic patent families and technology life cycle to define the grey-rhino model. Firstly, we design the indicator rhino-index Rh = ST/SP and descriptor sequence {Rh}, where ST and SP are the accumulative number of triadic patent families and all patent families respectively for a specific technology. Secondly, according to the two typical features of the grey-rhino event, a grey-rhino is defined as a technology that meets both qualitative and quantitative conditions. Qualitatively, this technology has a profound influence. Quantitatively, in the emerging stage, Rh ≥ Rae, where Rae is the average level of the proportion of triadic patent families. Finally, this model is verified in three datasets, namely Encyclopedia Britannica's list for the greatest inventions (EB technologies for short), MIT breakthrough technologies (MIT technologies) and Derwent Manual Code technologies (MAN technologies). Findings The result shows that there are 64.71% EB technologies and 50.00% MIT technologies meeting the quantitative standard of the grey-rhino model, but only 14.71% MAN technologies fit the quantitative standard. This falling trend indicates the quantitative standard of the grey-rhino model is reasonable. EB technologies and MIT technologies have profound influence on society, which means they satisfy the qualitative standard of the grey-rhino model. Hence, 64.71% EB technologies and 50.00% MIT technologies are grey-rhinos. In 14.71% MAN technologies meeting the quantitative standard, we make some qualitative judgments and deem U11-A01A, U12-A01A1A, and W01-A01A as grey-rhino technologies. In addition, grey-rhinos and non-grey-rhinos have some differences. Rh values of grey-rhinos have a downward trend, while Rh values of non-grey-rhinos have a contrary trend. Rh values of grey-rhinos are scattered relatively in the early stage and centralize gradually, but non-grey-rhinos do not have this feature. Research limitations There are four main limitations. First, if a technology satisfies the quantitative standard of the model, it is likely to be a grey-rhino but expert judgments are necessary. Second, we don’t know why it will be eminent, which involves technical contents. Thirdly, we did not consider the China National Intellectual Property Administration (CNIPA) and the German Patent and Trademark Office (DPMA) which also play important roles in worldwide patents, so we hope to expand our study to the CNIPA and the DPMA. Furthermore, we did not compare the rhino-index with other patent indicators. Practical implications If a technology meets the quantitative standard, this can be seen as early warning signals and the technology may become a grey-rhino in the future, which can catch people's attention in the emerging stage and make people seize the technical opportunity early. Originality/value We define and verify a new pattern called the grey-rhino model in eminent technologies.

MARIE BASHKIRTSEFF AND BOJIDAR KARAGEORGEVITCH: THE UNIQUENESS OF A CREATIVE DIALOGUE BETWEEN UNIVERSALIST ARTISTS

In her article, the author intends to embrace the phenomenon of Marie Bashkirtseff , whose literary legacy perfectly refl ects the epoch at the turn of the centuries. To achieve this goal, the author uses such methods as comparative, receptive and interpretive ones as well as cross reading. A special focus is on the Diary by Bashkirtseff which helps understand her creative personality, psychological priorities and artistic mission. The author studies her Ukrainian identity, estheticism, artistic behavior, feminism and disagreement with a traditional status of the woman that was so typical for her epoch. The author shows that estheticism and dandyism become her world view and life style. This can be traced in her female self-attraction, fascination with her own body, her clothes making or ordering it at Paris boutiques, love for accessories, artistic behavior and estheticism of her home. The author proves that Bashkirtseff ’s literary legacy can be seen as a true testimony to the arts of the turn of the centuries. Her Diary contemplates the atmosphere of the epoch, it resonates with real life, and it describes cultural reality simultaneously with social issues and everyday reality. It is fi lled with refl ections about art and literature that help discover cultural and historic truth. Also, the author presents an overview of Bojidar Karageorgevitch’s legacy. Born a Serbian prince, he was an intellectual cosmopolitan, writer, translator, journalist, artist, illustrator, designer, and jeweler. Bojidar was Bashkirtseff ’s close friend. He watched closely all discussions caused by the Diary. Karageorgevitch participated in denouncing invented stories about it. To give his friend more credibility, Karageorgevitch wrote several articles about Bashkirtseff , one of which was included into Encyclopedia Britannica. While researching the t life and multisided legacy of both artists, the author defi nes pronounced similarities between the two, including aristocratic decent, gifts and skills in the arts, education, cosmopolitanism, and bohemian lifestyles. It is proved that the legacy of Bashkirtseff and Karageorgevitch refl ects the tendencies of their time and can be used as a material to study the life of artists at the turn of the centuries and to deepen knowledge about European cultural context at the end of the 19th century. Key words: Marie Bashkirtseff , Bojidar Karageorgevitch, universalist artists, creative dialogue, estheticism, cosmopolitism, memoirs, travel notes.

Reverie

Reverie

Poe in Cyberspace: Web 1, 2, 3 . . .

Poe in Cyberspace: Web 1, 2, 3 . . .

Wilder on Teaching

Wilder on Teaching

Bernard Shaw as Political Writer

Bernard Shaw as Political Writer

Africa’s Poverty and Famines: Developmental Projects of China on Africa

Poverty exists without any face; it is a multifaceted and complex phenomenon. Poverty and famines existed before human civilization and culture. Human culture existed 0.07 million years ago, and civilization began 6000 years ago. In a modern civilized society, ‘first famine in human history occurred in 1708 B.C. From 1708 BC to 1878 AD, 350 famines occurred in various spheres of the world. The Encyclopedia Britannica listed 31 main famines from prehistoric to the 1960s. The sub-continent has also faced eleven severe famines from 1769-70 to 1943, and about 40.9 million people have died due to these famines. Similarly, more than 2 billion people live below the poverty line. Besides, China left 800 million people due to ‘Open Door Policy’. Now she is changing the world's shape through BRI. Africa is a complex and perplexing region of the world. Because, Africa is facing all the root problems of the world, i.e., poverty, massive unemployment and income inequality, mono-culture political economy, border disputes, intra-state wars, and ethnic and lingual clashes. In the land of Africa, the first famine was recorded 2273 years ago in Ethiopia’. About 2,582 languages[i] and 1,382 dialects are found on the African continent. From 1945 to 1999, humanity faced 25 interstate wars, most of which occurred in Africa. Therefore, 127 civil wars happened among 73 states in the same era, and 16.2 million people died. The Export and Import Bank of China will spend 1US$ trillion on the African continent in 2025.
 [i] Language which is speaking in Africa, Arabic (170 million) English (130 million), Swahili (100), French (115), Berber (50), Hausa (50), Portuguese (20) and Spanish (10) (Spolsky, 2018)

Class Rooms

Class Rooms

THE ECONOMIC PAMPHLETEER: Technology: Good, bad, or neutral?

Is technology good, bad, or neutral? The pre­vailing sentiment seems to be that technology is neither good nor bad, but is simply a tool that can be used for either. However, once a technology has been developed, its net effects will be one or the other. The consequences will depend on the inten­tion, or perhaps inattention, with which a technol­ogy is developed and applied. The Encyclopedia Britannica (n.d.) defines technology as “the application of scientific knowledge to the practical aims of human life” (para. 1). The basic purpose of technology, whether mechanical, biological, or digital, is to allow people do things easier, faster, or better. Whether a technology is good, bad, or neutral depends on whose intentions or aims are met and who suffers any unintended consequences. The net effects of a technology, considering both good and bad, is determined not only by whether it contributes to the practical aims of some, but whether it contributes to the betterment of society or life in general.

The partition of Bengal in 1947 and The Role of the Hindu MahaSabha

According to Encyclopedia Britannica, the English word “De-colonization” means liberation of colonies from their foreign overlords. After the 2nd world war, the De-colonization of the Asia African continent began due to different economic-political-strategic factors. However, in many instances, this process brings partition of an undivided country into 2\3 smaller successor States with forceful mass migration, refugee crisis, loss of monetary and human resources due to violent civil wars between different ethno-religious groups. After the battle of Plessey (1757) granting of Dewani to the English East India Company (1765), Bengal became the center of the British power in East India. The British city of Calcutta became the most prominent city in Asia as the capital of British India. Through the efforts of some European and native academicians, a mixture of Anglo-British culture happened. The Bengali thinkers taught the nation the first lessons of patriotism during the colonial period. At the beginning of the 20th century, the then Viceroy of India, Lord Curzon, divided Bengal into two parts in 1905. The Bengali masses protested publicly against the partition. R.Tagore and other Bengali thinkers guided the agitation. This protest movement was known as the Swadeshi movement. In 1911, the division was cancelled, but the capital of British India had been shifted from Calcutta to Delhi. After the establishment of the Muslim League. (1906), The Hindu MohaSabha (1915) and enactment of the Morle-Minto (1909), Montegu-Chamesford (1919), the communal harmony between the Bengali Hindu and Muslim community decreased. After the 2nd world war, it became clear that the British Empire in the Indian sub-continent would collapse soon. During the power transfer process, the division of the sub-continent into two different countries became inventible. My aim in this study is to point out the role of the Hindu MahaSabha in the partition of Bengal in 1947. I will try to point out whether the division of Bengal was necessary or the rise of Bengali communalism forced it. I will try both analytical and descriptive research methods to answer my questions.

When a molecular motor does the quantum leap

In his seminal 1959 lecture “There’s Plenty of Room at the Bottom” Richard Feynman has put forward two challenges [1] .The first was to shrink letters to a size, which allowed writing the whole Encyclopedia Britannica on the head of a pin - which was achieved in 1985 [2].The second challenge read: “It is my intention to offer a prize of $1,000 to the first guy who makes a rotating electric motor which can be controlled from the outside and, not counting the lead-in wires, is only 1/64th inch cubed” [1].

Taproots of Tennessee: Historic Sites and Timeless Recipes

Taproots of Tennessee: Historic Sites and Timeless Recipes

Age, mobility and creative output: prominent authors in 18th and 19th century Germany

ABSTRACT This paper studies the movement of creative writers in the light of changes in German economic and political structures from the early 18th to the early 20th century. For this, we have constructed from various sources a yearly data set on all the writers in German listed in the Encyclopedia Britannica and born in the 18th and 19th centuries. The key findings are that, first, there was extensive long-term movment, initially to small university towns and later to large cities, especially Berlin and Munich. As such the notion of creative clusters is not recent but dates back centuries. Second, migration and yearly publication output are both strongly linked to age. The study is broken into three subperiods, 1700–1785, 1786–1839 and 1840–1899, and what is striking perhaps is that these age relationships followed very similar patterns in all these subperiods. Third, some of the causal factors for this are posited, for futher research, such as changes in publishing and transport facilities, employment opportunities and the attractions of being in a lively creative milieu. Useful lessons for present-day policy regarding the extent of and motivation for clustering, and their linkage to age, can be applied.