Emotional Availability Scales Research Articles

Parent-child interaction after home-visiting intervention for children born extremely preterm-A randomised clinical trial.

To determine whether a strength-based home-visiting program enhances parent-child interaction during the first year at home for children born extremely preterm (gestational age < 28). A randomised controlled trial of 130 infants born extremely preterm 2018-2021 in Stockholm, allocated to either the Stockholm preterm interaction-based intervention (SPIBI) (n = 66) or an extended follow-up program (n = 64). The intervention group received ten home visits during the first year by a trained interventionist following SPIBI guidelines: an interaction-based intervention supporting sensitive parental responses to infants' signals. The primary outcome of emotional availability was assessed at 12 months corrected age (CA) using the emotional availability scales (EAS). At 1-year CA, data were collected from 115/130 (89%) of the included children. There were no significant group differences in emotional availability at 12 months CA. A secondary analysis showed an effect modifier in families with mothers self-rated as depressed at discharge, with the outcome favouring intervention in the EAS dimension of child involvement. The SPIBI had no significant main effect on emotional availability at 12 months CA. Children of self-reported depressed mothers displayed superior involvement behaviour in the intervention group, prompting further research on risk groups and potential modifications of post-discharge interventions.

Maternal emotional availability and perinatal depressive symptoms as predictors of early childhood executive function

BackgroundThe interconnected effects of maternal perinatal depression and the early mother-infant relational quality on children's executive function development are crucial yet understudied. This study addresses this gap, focusing on how perinatal depressive symptoms and emotional availability at 6 months predict child executive function performance at age four, with an emphasis on the moderating role of emotional availability. MethodThis study included 282 mother-infant pairs recruited from the Mercy Pregnancy and Emotional Wellbeing Study, utilising repeated Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale measurement over the perinatal period, Emotional Availability Scales, and child executive function assessments (Shape School, NEPSY-II, Preschool Age Psychiatric Assessment, Attention Deficit Hyperactivity scale, inattentive subscale). Latent growth curve analysis incorporated controls for socioeconomic status and maternal cognitive abilities, and moderation effects were examined through multiplicative interaction terms. ResultsWe found that emotional availability influences children's executive function, specifically switching, motor inhibition, and inattentive symptoms, irrespective of maternal depressive symptom changes. This effect is further nuanced by emotional availability's moderating role in the association between depressive symptom change and switching. LimitationsThe study's limitations include a relatively small sample size for moderation analysis and the exclusion of paternal influences. ConclusionThis study is a significant step in understanding the profound influence of maternal emotional availability in infancy on child executive function development, offering new avenues for research and, if replicated, a foundation for innovative intervention approaches.

Co-regulation, relationship quality, and infant distress vocalizations observed during mother-infant interactions: Influences of maternal depression and different contexts.

Mother-infant interactions are co-regulated and provide the foundation for mother-infant relationship quality. The implications of maternal depression and contextual demands (i.e., reinstating the interaction following maternal unavailability and vocalized infant distress) on observationally coded co-regulation in mother-infant dyads (n=40) at 4-months was investigated. Associations among co-regulation patterns and mother-infant relationship quality was also examined. Dyads participated in Still-Face (SF) and Separation (SP) procedures, with periods of maternal emotional and physical unavailability. Co-regulation was captured using the Revised Relational Coding System. Relationship quality was examined using the Emotional Availability Scales. Dyads in the depressed group had significantly more unilateral exchanges than the non-depressed group following the SF and SP perturbations. The depressed group also had significantly more distress vocalizations during the SP perturbation than the non-depressed group. Co-regulation in the depressed group was less disrupted by the SF perturbation. Positive relationship quality dimensions (maternal sensitivity, structuring, and infant responsiveness) were associated with more symmetrical and less unilateral co-regulation regardless of the interaction period. There were also context-specific results pertaining to patterns of co-regulation and associated maternal hostility and infant responsiveness. Results highlight co-regulatory differences in depressed mothers and their infants and how these differences are exacerbated by contextual demands.

Maternal and paternal sensitivity: Key determinants of child attachment security examined through meta-analysis.

Sensitive caregiving behavior, which involves the ability to notice, interpret, and quickly respond to a child's signals of need and/or interest, is a central determinant of secure child-caregiver attachment. Yet, significant heterogeneity in effect sizes exists across the literature, and sources of heterogeneity have yet to be explained. For all child-caregiver dyads, there was a significant and positive pooled association between caregiver sensitivity and parent-child attachment (r = .25, 95% CI [.22, .28], k = 174, 230 effect sizes, N = 22,914). We also found a positive association between maternal sensitivity and child attachment security (r = .26, 95% CI [.22, .29], k = 159, 202 effect sizes, N = 21,483), which was equivalent in magnitude to paternal sensitivity and child attachment security (r = .21, 95% CI [.14, 27], k = 22, 23 effect sizes, N = 1,626). Maternal sensitivity was also negatively associated with all three classifications of insecure attachment (avoidant: k = 43, r = -.24 [-.34, -.13]; resistant: k = 43, r = -.12 [-.19, -.06]; disorganized: k = 24, r = -.19 [-.27, -.11]). For maternal sensitivity, associations were larger in studies that used the Attachment Q-Sort (vs. the Strange Situation), used the Maternal Behavior Q-Sort (vs. Ainsworth or Emotional Availability Scales), had strong (vs. poor) interrater measurement reliability, had a longer observation of sensitivity, and had less time elapse between assessments. For paternal sensitivity, associations were larger in older (vs. younger) fathers and children. These findings confirm the importance of both maternal and paternal sensitivity for the development of child attachment security and add understanding of the methodological and substantive factors that allow this effect to be observed. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

Predicting externalizing behaviors in typically developing toddlers at 24 months: Insights from parenting at 12 months

Early observational assessment of parent and child behaviors may identify risk factors associated with the development of early child externalizing behaviors. This study aimed to examine factors associated with child externalizing behaviors at 24-months of age, including early maternal depression, family social risk and the parent-child relationship. Using a longitudinal design in 89 mother-child dyads (n = 43 female), maternal depressive symptoms and social risk were measured post-birth, and 12-months later parent-child interaction was assessed using the Emotional Availability Scales. To assess child externalizing behaviors, a parent-report questionnaire was administered when children were 24-months old. Increased early maternal depressive symptoms (p = .03), but not higher social risk (p = 0.17), were associated with higher child externalizing behaviors in children at age 24-months. After adjusting for early maternal depressive symptoms and familial social risk, lower levels of observed maternal structuring (β = −2.60, 95 %CI = −4.56, −0.64, p = .01) and lower levels of non-hostility (β = −3.39, 95 %CI −6.64, −0.14, p = .04) when the child was 12-months old were associated with higher parent-report of externalizing behaviors. However, the child’s observed interaction behavior was not associated with the mother’s report of child externalizing behavior. Interventions targeting specific post-natal maternal mental health and early parenting behaviors may reduce the risk for the development of later child externalizing problems.

Parent‐child interaction is related to emotional and behavioral problems in pediatric intestinal failure

AbstractObjectivesParent‐child interaction in pediatric intestinal failure (IF) and in parenteral nutrition (PN) graduates can be disturbed due to parental responsibilities related to the condition, and could affect the child's emotional and behavioral functioning (EBF). The aim was to assess parent‐child interaction, to examine associations with clinical features, and to relate parent‐child interaction to EBF.MethodsA cross‐sectional study of IF patients and PN graduates aged 1.5−18 years and one primary caregiver was performed in two Dutch multidisciplinary pediatric IF teams. Parent‐child interaction was observed using the Emotional Availability Scales (EAS), reported with the Parent Child Interaction Questionnaire (PACHIQ) and compared to normvalues when available. Associations between parent‐child interaction and clinical factors and EBF were examined. EBF was assessed using the Child Behavior Checklist. All measures are validated.ResultsA total of 41 parent‐child dyads were included, 17 (41.4%) received PN at time of assessment and median age was 8.9 [interquartile range 5.8−11.9] years. No significant differences in parent‐reported interaction compared to normative values or between PN‐receiving and weaned children were found. Exploratory multivariable regression indicated that only the child's female sex was significantly positively related to parent‐child interaction. Parent‐child interaction was negatively related to EBF for nonhostility, conflict resolution, and acceptance.ConclusionOur findings suggest that (self‐reported) parent‐child interaction in IF patients and PN graduates is not significantly different as compared to healthy peers, and unrelated to clinical characteristics. However, aspects of parent‐child interaction were correlated to EBF, potentially being a target for prevention or intervention in children with diminished EBF.

Maternal cognitive functioning and psychopathology predict quality of parent-child relationship in the context of substance use disorder: A 15-month longitudinal study.

This longitudinal study aimed to investigate the role of maternal cognitive functioning and psychopathology in parent-child relationship quality during residential treatment for mothers with Substance Use Disorder (SUD), in order to identify factors that may enhance or limit intervention effects.We assessed cognitive functioning (Esame Neuropsicologico Breve-2 [ENB-2]) and psychopathology (Symptom Checklist-90 Revised [SCL-90-R]) in 60 mothers diagnosed with SUD (Mage = 30.13 yrs; SD = 6.79) at treatment admission. Parent-child relationship quality was measured during free-play interactions using the Emotional Availability Scales every three months from admission (Child Mage = 17.17m; SD = 23.60) to the 15th month of the residential treatment.A main effect of maternal psychopathology and an interaction effect of time and cognitive functioning were found. More maternal psychopathology predicted lower mother-child relationship quality. Mothers with higher cognitive functioning presented a better treatment trajectory, with an increase in mother-child relationship quality, whereas mothers with lower cognitive functioning showed a decrease in relationship quality after initial improvement.These findings suggest that maternal psychopathology and cognitive functioning may influence the treatment of parent-child relationships in the context of SUD, although causality is not yet established. Implications for assessment and intervention are discussed.

Bodily-tactile early intervention: a pilot study of the role of maternal touch and emotional availability in interactions between three children with visual impairment and additional disabilities and their mothers.

Children with visual impairment and additional disabilities (VIAD) have difficulty accessing the visual information related to their parents' facial expressions and gestures. Similarly, it may be hard for parents to detect their children's subtle expressions. These challenges in accessibility may compromise emotional availability (EA) in parent-child interactions. The systematic use of the bodily-tactile modality for expressive and receptive communicative functions may function as a strategy to compensate for a child's lack of vision. This multiple-case study explored the effects of a bodily-tactile early intervention for three mothers and their one-year-old children with VIAD. Video data from baseline, intervention, and follow-up sessions were analyzed using a bodily-tactile coding procedure and EA Scales. During the intervention, all mothers began to use a more bodily-tactile modality in early play routines and in different communicative functions. They increased their use of anticipatory cues, noticing responses, and tactile signs. Moreover, the children were more emotionally available to their mothers during the intervention and follow-up compared to the baseline. The results indicated that, during a short intervention, mothers could adopt a systematic use of the bodily-tactile modality in interactions with their children with VIAD. The results also suggest that, when mothers increased flexibility in communication channels, it was positively linked to their children's EA.

Being an Infant in a Pandemic: Influences of the COVID-19 Pandemic on Infants, Toddlers and Their Mothers in a Clinical Population.

The COVID-19 pandemic and the ongoing lockdowns might have had a strong impact on mental health of mothers and their infants/toddlers. For example, families had to deal with health issues and social isolation, which might have affected mental health and parent-child interactions. The aim of this study is to evaluate differences in (1) infantile regulatory disorders, (2) maternal mental health, (3) the impact of maternal mental health on infantile regulatory disorders, and (4) alterations in the mother-child interaction for participants recruited before versus after the onset of the first German lockdown. For this reason, mother-child dyads have been divided into two groups and were compared by analyzing clinical interviews on psychopathology of mother and child (M.I.N.I. & DC:05) and mother-child-interactions (Emotional Availability Scales). Results showed that (1) differences in infantile sleeping disorders emerged (phi = 0.243; p = 0.016) compared to the pre-lockdown group, while (2) the occurrence of maternal panic and anxiety increased in the post-lockdown group (phi = 0.229; p = 0.022). Moreover, there was (3) an association for maternal panic and child's sleep disorder, and (4) specific associations with maternal non-hostility in the mother-child-interaction. In conclusion, the present study highlights the differences of maternal mental health occurrences and infants' regulatory problems, as well as the possible effects of the COVID-19 pandemic for infants. In the pre-lockdown group, maternal non-hostility might have acted as a promotive factor against regulatory disorders, while this mechanism was mitigated in the post-lockdown group.

Lower maternal emotional availability is related to increased attention toward fearful faces during infancy

It has been suggested that infants’ age-typical attention biases for faces and facial expressions have an inherent connection with the parent–infant interaction. However, only a few previous studies have addressed this topic. To investigate the association between maternal caregiving behaviors and an infant’s attention for emotional faces, 149 mother–infant dyads were assessed when the infants were 8 months. Caregiving behaviors were observed during free-play interactions and coded using the Emotional Availability Scales. The composite score of four parental dimensions, that are sensitivity, structuring, non-intrusiveness, and non-hostility, was used in the analyses. Attention disengagement from faces was measured using eye tracking and face-distractor paradigm with neutral, happy, and fearful faces and scrambled-face control pictures as stimuli. The main finding was that lower maternal emotional availability was related to an infant’s higher attention to fearful faces (p = .042), when infant sex and maternal age, education, and concurrent depressive and anxiety symptoms were controlled. This finding indicates that low maternal emotional availability may sensitize infants’ emotion processing system for the signals of fear at least during this specific age around 8 months. The significance of the increased attention toward fearful faces during infancy is an important topic for future research.

Are changes in mothers’ representations of their infants related to changes in observed mother–infant interaction quality?

Infant mental health clinicians aiming to improve mother–infant dyads at risk typically target mothers’ representations of their infant or mother–infant interactions, assuming that one port of entry leads to change in the other. However, little is known about the relation between changes in mothers’ representations and in mother–infant interactions. Therefore, the current study aimed to investigate this in a low- to moderate-risk community sample of 152 mothers (M = 29.7 years) of infants aged 0–2 years (M = 11.5 months) recruited from rural and urban cities in Norway. The mothers’ representations were measured using the Working Model of the Child Interview, and the quality of the mother–infant interactions was measured with the Emotional Availability Scales. We found no evidence of a relation between mothers’ changed representations and changed quality of mother–infant interactions. Several explanations concerning the low-risk status of the sample, the observation situation, the time between assessment points, and the homogeneous scores from the instruments used are discussed, as are the implications for clinical practice and future research.

Past attachment experiences, the potential link of mentalization and the transmission of behavior to the child by mothers with mental health problems: cross-sectional analysis of a clinical sample

Maternal capacity to mentalize (= reflective functioning, RF), secure attachment and emotionally available parenting has an impact on the child’s development. The transmission of mothers’ past attachment experiences gained with both her caregivers in her own childhood and the impact on current mother–child interaction is part of the ‘transmission gap.’ This study explores the transgenerational transmission mechanisms and the potential moderating effect of RF in a clinical sample of 113 mother–child dyads suffering from mental health problems. In a cross-sectional study, the associations between maternal attachment experiences, RF (coded based on Adult Attachment Interviews) and current mother–child interaction (Emotional Availability Scales) were examined with univariate correlation, moderator analyses, and structural equation models. We found relationships between attachment experiences and mother–child interaction, but RF had no moderating effect. Past loving experiences and perceived neglection, particularly with the own father in childhood, were predictors for the present mother–child interaction. There seems to be an intergenerational transmission of attachment experiences to the ongoing generation. Particularly past adverse childhood experiences with the own father seem to explain currently disruptive interactions with the child.Trial registration: DRKS00017008 and DRKS00016353.

Mentalizing in first-time fathers: reflective functioning as a mediator between attachment representation and sensitivity

ABSTRACT Sensitivity in parent-child interaction is essential for child development. Since fathers are increasingly involved in childrearing, identifying factors leading to paternal sensitivity is crucial. We examined the relation between attachment representation and reflective functioning (RF) as factors influencing paternal sensitivity in a longitudinal study including N = 40 first-time fathers (M age = 33) and their 6-month-old children. We used the Adult Attachment Interview during pregnancy to assess paternal attachment representation and general RF, the Parental Development Interview to assess fathers’ parental RF, and the Emotional Availability Scale to measure sensitivity at child’s age of 6 month. Data show that secure paternal attachment representation, high general and parental RF are associated with higher levels of paternal sensitivity. Further, parental RF mediates the association between attachment representation and paternal sensitivity. These findings contribute to the identification of a causal interplay in that they suggest an explanatory effect of RF on the association between fathers’ attachment representation, and sensitivity.

Observed Emotional Availability (EA) in the Early Months and Adolescence and Self-Reported EA at Any Age: A Narrative Review

Emotional availability (EA) is a relational construct that encompasses the ability of a dyad to share an emotionally connected, safe relationship. EA is operationalized by the multidimensional framework, which includes the observational EA Scales, the observational emotional attachment zones (EA-Z), as well as the EA Self-Report (EA-SR). The observational EA Scales measure the mutual interactive influences a child and parent may have on one another through observation of their affect and behavior and consist of 4 adult dimensions (sensitivity, structuring, nonintrusiveness, and nonhostility) and 2 child dimensions (responsiveness and involvement of the adult). The EA-Z refers to “emotional attachment styles” and is based on the summary of the observational EA Scales, assigned separately to adult and child (Emotionally Available, Complicated, Detached, Problematic/Disturbed/Traumatized or Traumatizing), with the potential that the emotional attachment perspective of the adult and child may not be the same. The EA-SR is about parental perceptions rather than observations, which should be taken into account in interpreting its findings. Collectively, these different measurements are referred to as the EA System. In this review, we focus on the EA-SR at any age, as well as EA observations, in the earliest months and adolescence.

Parenting Preterm Children: Emotional Availability At Preschool Age

Prematurity is a particular challenge for parents that severely affects the interaction and relationship dynamics between children and their caregivers. Previous studies mostly focused on the infancy of preterms but did not examine the development process. This study highlights whether preterm children and their main caregivers still differ in their emotional availability (EA) at preschool age. Caregiver-child interactions during the transition period of school entry were measured with the Emotional Availability Scales (EAS). N = 25 preterm (25–33 weeks of gestation) and n = 23 term children at an age of 5 years and their main caregivers were observed while playing a construction game that was eliciting either a low or moderate stress level. Caregivers of preterm children showed higher intrusiveness scores compared to caregivers of term dyads. Thus, it seems that parents of preterm children behave intrusively independently of their children's cognitive performance.

Are emotionally competent adults emotionally available parents? Examination of theoretical and empirical relationships in a video-recorded parent-child interaction clinical preschool-aged sample.

Emotional competence (EC) describes one's general ability to perceive, express, process, and regulate their own emotions as well as those of others. In the clinical context of parent-child interactions, the specific ability to perceive, express and regulate a child's emotions is conceptually covered by the Emotional Availability Scales (EAS). We aim to examine theoretical and empirical overlaps between EC (Rindermann) and emotional availability (EA; Biringen) for theoretical, diagnostic, and therapeutic reasons. Parents of a clinically referred sample of preschool-aged children (55 dyads) filled out a self-report questionnaire (ECQ), and certified and blinded raters applied the EAS via observations. In a novel approach, the EC was additionally estimated with independent ratings made by two further observers. All dyads were coded on 10-min video-recorded parent-child interactions during free play. In bivariate and multivariate analyses, EC scores from observational ratings were strongly associated with independently rated clinical emotional availability scores. EC scores from self-reports were moderately associated with emotional availability scores. A post hoc power analysis estimated β error probabilities. EC may represent an important personal precondition to an emotionally available parent. As such, we discuss implications for early risk factor assessments for child development and highlight new prevention approaches, new diagnostic options, and refined treatment goals. Limitations included the sample size, assessment, and the influence of study design on results.

Validity of the Emotional Attachment Zones Evaluation (EA-Z): Assessing Attachment Style Across a Developmental Spectrum

Sensitive, consistent caregiving and a secure attachment style are important to healthy child development. However, the lack of continuity in measures from infancy into adulthood limits conclusions regarding the stability of attachment styles across the lifespan. A new measure, the Emotional Attachment Zones Evaluation (EA-Z), derived from the Emotional Availability Scales (Biringen, 2008; Biringen, Robinson, & Emde, 1998), offers a tool to assess attachment style across a broad developmental spectrum. In order to validate this measure as an attachment style measure, we used three studies to compare the EA-Z to empirically validated attachment tools. In study 1, we compared the EA-Z to the Strange Situation Procedure. There was moderate concordance between these two measures for both mother and infant. In study 2, we compared the EA-Z to the Attachment Q-Sort in an infant/toddler childcare setting. Child EA-Z scores related to child attachment security, whereas teacher EA-Z scores did not relate to child attachment security. Finally, in study 3, we compared the EA-Z to the mother’s Adult Attachment Interview. Results indicated moderate concordance between these measures, both for the adult mother and the preschool child. All three of these studies offer promising evidence for the validity of the EA-Z as an attachment tool, as well as future directions for research and practice using the EA System.

Parental Mental Health and Parenting Behaviors Following Very Preterm Birth: Associations in Mothers and Fathers and Implications for Child Cognitive Outcome.

To investigate the longitudinal associations between parental mental health symptoms within 4 weeks of birth, parenting behaviors at 1 year, and child general cognitive ability at 4.5-5 years in a sample of children born very preterm (VP). This study also examined whether these associations differed based on level of family social risk. Participants were 143 children born <30 weeks' gestation and their parents. Within 4 weeks of birth, mothers' and fathers' depressive and anxiety symptoms were assessed using the Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale and Hospital Anxiety Depression Scale-Anxiety Subscale. Parents' sensitive and structuring parenting behaviors were assessed at 1 year using the Emotional Availability Scales. Child general cognitive ability was assessed at 4.5-5 years using the Wechsler Preschool & Primary Scale of Intelligence-Fourth Edition. Higher maternal depressive symptoms were associated with lower levels of sensitive and structuring parenting behavior, while higher maternal anxiety symptoms were associated with higher levels of structuring parenting behavior. There was weak evidence for positive associations between mothers' sensitive parenting behavior and fathers' structuring parenting behavior and child general cognitive ability. There was also weak evidence for stronger associations between mothers' mental health symptoms, parenting behaviors, and child general cognitive ability, in families of higher compared with lower social risk. Depressive and anxiety symptoms experienced by mothers in the initial weeks following VP birth can have long-term effects on their parenting behaviors. Enquiring about parents' mental health during their child's hospitalization in the neonatal intensive care unit is crucial.

Maternal sensitivity at the age of 8 months associates with local connectivity of the medial prefrontal cortex in children at 5 years of age.

The quality of mother–child interaction, especially maternal sensitivity in caregiving behavior, plays an important role in a child’s later socioemotional development. Numerous studies have indicated associations between poor mother–child interaction and offspring brain structure and function, but more knowledge on how variation in the characteristics of early caregiving is associated with children’s brain structure and function is needed. We investigated whether maternal sensitivity at 8 or 30 months is associated with functional connectivity in a child’s brain at 5 years of age based on the FinnBrain Birth Cohort Study (17 and 39 mother–child dyads at 8 and 30 months, respectively, with an overlap of 13 dyads). Maternal sensitivity was assessed during a free play interaction using the Emotional Availability Scales at 8 and 30 months of the children’s age. Task-free functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) was acquired at the age of 5 years in 7-min scans while watching the Inscapes movie. Regional homogeneity (ReHo) maps were created from the fMRI data, and multiple regression analysis was performed to assess the relation between maternal sensitivity and ReHo. Maternal sensitivity at the age of 8 months was positively associated with children’s ReHo values within the medial prefrontal cortex. Distal connectivity of this region showed no significant association with maternal sensitivity in a seed-based connectivity analysis. No associations were found between maternal sensitivity during toddlerhood and brain functional connectivity. Together, these results suggest that maternal sensitivity, especially in infancy, may influence offspring brain functional connectivity. However, studies with larger sample sizes are warranted.

Prenatal Reflective Functioning as a Predictor of Substance-Using Mothers' Treatment Outcome: Comparing Results From Two Different RF Measures.

Mothers with prenatal substance use disorder (SUD) often show broad deficits in their reflective functioning (RF), implying severe risk for the relationship with their baby. Two different types of prenatal maternal RF may be important for parenting: adult attachment-focused-RF (AAI-RF), regarding parent's own childhood experiences, and parenting-focused RF (PRF) regarding their own current process of becoming a parent. However, their inter-relations and potentially different roles for parenting intervention outcomes are not clear. This study examined the associations between mothers' prenatal AAI-RF and pre- and post-natal PRF, and their role in mother-infant interaction and substance use as treatment outcomes. The participants were 57 treatment-enrolled pregnant mothers with SUD and 50 low-risk comparison mothers. AAI-RF was measured with the Adult Attachment Interview. For a subsample of 30 mothers with SUD, PRF was measured with Pregnancy Interview (during pregnancy/pre-intervention), and with Parent Development Interview at 4 months (during intervention). Mother-infant interaction was measured with Emotional Availability Scales at 4 and 12 months (post-intervention), and maternal substance use by post-natal substance relapses. Prenatal AAI-RF and pre- and post-natal PRF were highly associated with each other. Only higher prenatal PRF predicted better mother-infant interaction quality at 4 months and less substance use during the child's first year. Interestingly, prenatal PRF and AAI-RF predicted opposite changes in mother-infant interaction: lower prenatal PRF, but higher AAI-RF predicting more positive change. AAI-RF was especially associated with a change in maternal intrusiveness and hostility, indicating that it represents a more general regulatory tendency. Further studies are needed in larger and lower-risk samples. Our results suggest, however, that AAI-RF and PRF are partially distinct and should be uniquely targeted in perinatal interventions.