Emotional And/or Behavioral Disorders Research Articles

Using Performance Feedback With and Without Goal Setting on Teachers’ Classroom Management Skills

Although evidence-based practices for improving academic engagement for students with emotional and/or behavioral disorders (EBD) have been identified, many teachers do not implement these practices with optimal fidelity. Thus, effective strategies are needed to improve teacher fidelity. Performance feedback is an effective professional development strategy, but it is unclear whether ancillary strategies like goal setting might further improve fidelity. In this study, we evaluated the effects of email performance feedback with and without goal setting on teacher implementation of opportunities to respond and behavior-specific praise using a multiple probe design. Participants were four general and special educators at a U.S. alternative school for students with EBD. Results indicated that a combination of written performance feedback and goal setting was effective, and that performance feedback alone was also effective. We were unable to determine whether the goal-setting component strengthened the performance feedback. Teachers provided positive feedback about the utility and feasibility of performance feedback with goal setting.

Impact of co‐teaching on general educator self‐reported knowledge and use of inclusive practices for students with emotional and behavioral disabilities: A pilot investigation

AbstractThis pilot study examined the self‐reported knowledge and implementation of recommended practices for supporting students with emotional and/or behavioral disorders (EBDs) in general education classrooms. Participants were general educators who had either limited experience in co‐teaching with a special educator or general educators with more consistent experience co‐teaching with a special educator. General educators with frequent opportunities to co‐teach with a special educator reported significantly higher levels of knowledge of classroom management and differentiation procedures. Additionally, general educators with more frequent opportunities to co‐teach with a special educator reported significantly higher levels of use of classroom management practices. Based on these results, we suggest that in the absence of adequate direct support from special education professionals, students with EBD who are placed in general education settings may be denied adequate and appropriate educational opportunities. However, this hypothesis requires further investigation utilizing methods such as systematic observation.

Evaluating the Effectiveness of Prevent–Teach–Reinforce for High School Students With Emotional and Behavioral Disorders

Although there is a wealth of research supporting the effectiveness of using functional behavior assessment (FBA) to inform development of behavior intervention plans (BIPs), schools continue to find the FBA and BIP process challenging for implementation, particularly for students with emotional and/or behavioral disorders (EBDs) in high school settings. The current study evaluated the use of the prevent–teach–reinforce (PTR) FBA model for three high school students with EBD in self-contained settings. Results indicated that PTR was effective at reducing problem behaviors and increasing replacement behaviors for all three students. Teachers implemented the interventions with high levels of fidelity. Social validity scores obtained from both teachers and students indicated acceptability of the PTR process and outcomes. Limitations and areas for future research are suggested.

The Relation Between the Academic Achievement of Students With Emotional and Behavioral Disorders and Teacher Characteristics

Teachers of students with emotional and/or behavioral disorders (EBD) are less experienced and more likely to have emergency certification than teachers of students with other disabilities. Yet, to date, research has not examined the relation between the academic achievement of students with EBD and characteristics associated with highly qualified teachers (teachers’ education level, certification status, and years of experience). Using a nationally representative longitudinal data set of students with disabilities, this study examined the relation between teacher characteristics and the academic achievement of students with EBD. Using hierarchical linear modeling, the study found low academic achievement for students with EBD, null effects for change in achievement across time, and null effects for the relation between (a) teachers’ educational level, certification status, and years of experience and (b) student academic achievement. Results indicate further research is needed to examine whether and how teacher characteristics may impact the academic achievement of students with EBD.

Task sequencing for students with emotional and behavioral disorders: a systematic review.

We reviewed studies utilizing task sequencing to improve academic outcomes for children with emotional and/or behavioral disorders (EBD) in educational settings. Task sequencing interventions included high-probability, high-preference, and task interspersal interventions. Although task sequencing is commonly used in research, a synthesis of recent applications in educational settings for students with EBD is absent. Systematic searches of electronic databases and ancestral references identified 11 studies meeting inclusion criteria. These 11 studies were reviewed and analyzed for (a) participant characteristics, (b) experimental design, (c) type of academic outcome as the dependent variable, (d) intervention description, (e) certainty of evidence and research quality, and (f) reported student academic outcomes. Implications for continued applied practice and future research are discussed.

Advancing the Science of Direct Observation in Emotional and/or Behavioral Disorders Research: Reliability and Unified Validity

* Evidence of functional and causal relationships between independent and dependent variables is contingent upon accurate, valid, and reliable measurement (Kazdin, 2011; Shadish, Cook, & Campbell, 2002). Standards for reliability and validity are well established in education (American Educational Research Association [AERA], American Psychological Association [APA], & National Council on Measurement in Education [NCME], 1999), but the application of many of those standards to direct observation is limited (Hintze, 2005), perhaps for reason (Baer, Harrison, Fradenburg, Peterson, & Milla, 2005). As an example of differences in psychometric criteria between direct observation and other generalized measurement approaches (e.g., rating scales, knowledge tests), review the special education quality indicators for single-subject design research, which is based in principles of applied behavior analysis and relies on systematic direct observation (Horner et al., 2005), and group experimental and quasiexperimental design research (Gersten, Baker, Haager, & Graves, 2005). Horner and colleagues indicate that dependent variables must be operationally defined and assessed for consistency using interobserver agreement, while Gersten and colleagues indicate that dependent variables must have evidence of internal consistency and concurrent validity, constructs rarely addressed in direct observation studies.The validity and reliability of scores resulting from either direct observation or other measurement approaches are necessary requirements of good science regardless of experimental design (i.e., single-subject, group experimental). A mismatch between established professional standards of generalized outcomes and direct observation, for example the within-subject repeated single observation scores that violate assumptions of traditional psychometric methods (e.g., assumption of independence inherent in many inferential approaches), is not license to apply direct observation without evidence of accuracy, reliability, and validity. As a remedy, the field of applied behavior analysis established criteria for determining reliability and validity of direct observation methods decades ago, namely interobserver agreement, transparent procedural descriptions, face validity based on complete reporting of operational definitions, and social validity of target behavior (Cooper, Heron, & Heward, 2008; Kazdin, 2011), and the field continues to refine and advance those methods (e.g., Wirth, Slaven, & Taylor, 2014). These criteria are accepted across disciplines and meet federal requirements of high quality research (e.g., Kratochwill et al., 2010), yet challenges remain with direct observation approaches in natural settings, particularly classrooms, including item scaling, observation procedures, and instrumentation (Horovitz & Matson, 2012; McComas, Vollmer, & Kennedy, 2009). To date, little has been written about these concerns or the advances that have been made addressing them in direct observation approaches in research supporting the needs of students with emotional and/or behavioral disorders (EBD) in schools and classrooms.This special issue of Behavioral Disorders is dedicated to addressing challenges and concerns related to direct observation measurement systems in school and classroom settings supporting the needs of students with EBD and describing advances in validity and reliability of direct observation results. The papers herein have been selected as means of highlighting three basic goals for this issue. The initial goal is to present an overview of basic issues related to direct observations in natural settings with students with or at risk for EBD and to provide general recommended considerations for reliable, valid, and generalizaba outcomes. The second goal is to provide a summation of the work that has been done in this area and to draw conclusions as to what we know and where research needs to go. …

Considering Systematic Direct Observation after a Century of Research—Commentary on the Special Issue

Systematic Direct Observation (SDO) has played a pivotal role in the field of Emotional and/or Behavioral Disorders (EBD) since its inception as a key part of more about the behaviors, contexts that impact them, and the effective supports necessary for this population. Thinking more critically about how we have, and should continue to use, this methodology is an ongoing charge for all of us. As we prepared ourselves to do this for the purposes of this article, and our own curiosity, we took a bit of time to explore the not-sorecent writings on the science of direct observation. Early on, we came across an outstanding article by Jersild and Meigs (1939). We strongly recommend that any scholar interested in the topic of SDO assessment research read that article. Essentially, it serves as a well-articulated reminder that the state of SDO research has changed little since 1939. While there are certainly many studies utilizing SDO, and with an ever-increasing population, Jersild and Meigs' hope for a more systematic investigation of SDO remains elusive. The extensive list of questions is as relevant today as it was then. Further, their recommendations are conceptually consistent with issues put forth in this special issue and ones we will champion in this commentary.As we fast-forward 75 years, one of the consistent hallmarks of EBD research and practice is the general consensus that SDO is the method (Baer, Wolf, & Risley, 1987). What does that exactly mean and how did this understanding come to exist? Is this belief fully defensible based on a comprehensive literature base that has investigated SDO through a clearly understood process for evaluating effective assessment procedures? Rather, is much of our literature base and corresponding assumptions based on cumulative data? In other words, have we yet to realize under what conditions and when SDO is valid and reliable? Moreover, which specific SDO coding schemes are valid and reliable in what conditions? And in some cases, has SDO become the default gold standard assessment method in the absence of other valid and reliable options? In this commentary we consider these century-old issues, the contribution of the other articles in the special issue to this question, and suggest an increased emphasis toward a systematic line of research to fully consider the psychometric properties of specific SDO for targeted purposes.Despite almost a century of documented research on SDO in child behavior (see Jersild & Meigs, 1939, Lewis et al., this issue), the field continues to seek more specific coding schemes that are reliable and valid. This may be in part because the tendency has been to generalize SDO research across populations and settings, as opposed to emphasizing more targeted research specifying unique coding schemes. Lewis and colleagues provide a descriptive account of this phenomenon within this issue as they highlight how SDOs are traditionally chosen almost exclusively based on the current dimension of the target behavior. Many SDO coding manuals come with procedures for data collection and operational definitions; but few come with documentation indicating the unique purpose for which the coding scheme-has been validated. Messick (1980) cautioned this and provided some insights. He operationally defined frameworks to systematically address various forms of validity, and perhaps even more relevant for the current discussion, identify the purpose of the assessment.Not all SDO is really developed or intended for use in applied settings; rather, such specific SDO codes serve a specific research paradigm. Others may be uniquely suited to capture multiple interaction codes for very specific contexts (e.g., teacher/student interaction effects), but are not valid for capturing the same student behavior within a discrete trial setting. Similarly, some SDO coding systems that are valid for students with extreme overt behaviors may not maintain validity or reliability when used with students with low incidence behavior, depression or even different age groups. …

What Affects Academic Functioning in Secondary Special Education Students with Serious Emotional and/or Behavioral Problems?

Concern is growing over the limited academic progress in special education students with emotional and/or behavioral disorders (EBD).We know little about how academic and behavioral factors interact in these students to affect their academic functioning. Therefore, potential associations were investigated over the course of one school year for 196 secondary students with EBD in a self-contained public school (SCS). Demographics, IQ and achievement testing, teacher checklist ratings for emotional/behavioral problems, and standard measures of school function were gathered. First, academic achievement was studied, and regression analyses showed that both reading and math achievement were significantly increased by higher verbal IQ and lower ADHD-inattentive symptoms (ADHD-I), and math also by higher performance IQ and younger age. Next, general academic performance was examined, and regression analysis demonstrated that major-subject GPA was significantly increased by lower ADHD-I teacher ratings, higher math achievement, and younger age. In comparison, out-of-school suspensions were significantly increased by higher conduct disorder and lower social phobia ratings. Thus, in these students with EBD in an SCS, academic functioning was primarily affected by academic parameters, and by ADHD-I but not by other emotional/behavioral problems. These results can further inform the planning of academic interventions for many students with EBD.

Disproportionality of English Learners with Emotional and/or Behavioral Disorders: A Comparative Meta-Analysis with English Learners with Learning Disabilities

Disproportionate representation of English learners in special education has been a longstanding and ongoing concern. However, research examining disproportionate representation of English learners receiving special education services for emotional and/or behavioral disorders (EBD) has been limited. To address this gap, a meta-analysis of disproportionate representation of English learners in the EBD category was conducted and the results were compared with same sample results for students receiving special education services for learning disabilities (LD). Based on five studies, the results of the meta-analysis indicate that English learners are disproportionately underrepresented in the EBD category generally and when compared with students in the LD category. Differences in odds ratios were found across educational contexts (i.e., school-level, district-level, state-level, and nationally), indicating different patterns of representation. Implications and potential reasons for disproportionality are discussed.

Exploring Self-Concept for Students with Emotional and/or Behavioral Disorders as They Transition from Elementary to Middle School and High School

Although significant research has been conducted around assessment and intervention for students with emotional and/or behavioral disorders (EBDs), few have investigated specifically how students with EBD self-report on their academic and social competence, or self-concept. Using a national longitudinal database, this study explored how students with EBD reported their self-concept in elementary school, how their reported self-concept changed as they transitioned to middle and high school, and, what factors influenced this change. Using latent growth modeling procedures, the study found that students with EBD reported high self-concept across time and that reported self-concept was most impacted by ethnicity (β=−.174) and urbanicity (β=−.113).

Assessing the Transition-Related Strengths and Needs of Adolescents with High-Incidence Disabilities

Although meaningful assessment is considered the cornerstone of transition planning, little empirical guidance is available to inform this assessment process. This study examined the transition-related strengths and needs of 160 students with emotional and/or behavioral disorders (EBD) or learning disabilities (LD) from the perspectives of special educators, parents, and youth. Teachers rated youth with EBD as evidencing more substantial needs than youth with LD across all 9 planning domains. Student's ratings were significantly higher than those of their teachers and parents. Variability in the extent to which participants reported having sufficient information to assess each domain, as well as the extent to which they considered each domain to be relevant to planning, highlights the importance of incorporating multiple perspectives into transition planning.

An Examination of the Evidence Base for Function-Based Interventions for Students with Emotional and/or Behavioral Disorders Attending Middle and High Schools

The authors field-tested the core quality indicators and standards for evidence-based practices for single-case design studies developed by Horner and colleagues (2005) by applying them to the literature exploring functional assessment-based interventions conducted with secondary-age students with emotional and/or behavioral disorders (EBD). First, we evaluated this knowledge base by applying the indicators to determine if the studies identified (n = 12) were of acceptable methodological quality. Second, we analyzed studies meeting the recommended quality indicators to determine whether function-based interventions with students with EBD might be considered an evidence-based practice. Results reveal that only 1 study addressed all proposed quality indicators, suggesting that function-based interventions are not yet an evidence-based practice for this population per these indicators and standards. Limitations and recommendations are posed.

Social Skills Training for Secondary Students With Emotional and/or Behavioral Disorders

Secondary students with or at risk for emotional and/or behavioral disorders (EBD) can be characterized as having severe deficits in social competence. Moreover, as students transition into the secondary grades, social competence takes on increased complexity and importance. Social skills training (SST) represents a class of interventions routinely implemented with secondary-age students identified as EBD as a means of improving their social competence. What is unknown, however, is whether the evidence base supports the use of SST for this particular subset of students. The purpose of this research was to synthesize the meta-analytic literature evaluating the efficacy of SST for secondary students with EBD. Results from this analysis indicate that SST produces improvements in two thirds of secondary students with EBD, compared to only one third of controls. The results from this analysis are interpreted in light of opposing opinions regarding the efficacy of SST for secondary students with EBD.

Treatment Integrity of Literacy Interventions for Students With Emotional and/or Behavioral Disorders

This review examines the treatment integrity data of literacy interventions for students with emotional and/or behavioral disorders (EBD). Forty-four studies published between 1977 and 2005 were examined. Findings indicate that studies focusing on literacy interventions for students with EBD included clear operational definitions and data on treatment integrity to a higher degree than have been found in other disciplines. However, neither were consistently reported and treatment integrity data were still only reported in just over half of the studies. Considerations for future research and reporting are discussed.

A descriptive analysis of intervention research in emotional and behavioral disorders from 1980 through 1999.

The current study was conducted to examine the trends involved with experimental intervention research designed to modify behaviors of children and youth with emotional and/or behavioral disorders (EBD). Trends are summarized and compared to the intervention research that has been conducted in developmental disabilities (DD). The contents of 10 journals published between 1980 and 1999 were analyzed. Descriptive dimensions of the research including participant demographics, settings, research designs, dependent and independent variables, intervention agents, and measures of ecological validity were investigated. In addition, the databases were examined to determine whether interventions were based on individualized processes of assessment. The results showed strikingly similar trends across interventions with EBD and DD participants. The discussion addresses the general status of intervention research across both populations, as well as the importance of extending the current research to examine additional variables and measures with various populations.

Using Collaborative Behavioral Contracting

Alex, a 13-year-old African-American male, was enrolled in a seventh-grade self-contained program for students with emotional and/or behavioral disorders (EBD) and was at or above grade level in the content area classes of reading, math, and social studies. Alex was also making social progress in this classroom, but displayed poor social skills and occasional aggressive outbursts. He was making both academic and social progress in his special education class. Alex's individualized education program (IEP) team scheduled a review for Alex, at which time his special education teacher, Ms. Peck, planned to address the possibility of Alex's making a transition to a general education reading class. Ms. Peck invited Ms. Smithson, the general education reading teacher, to join Alex's IEP team. At the meeting, Alex's IEP team determined that, in accordance with the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (1997) least restrictive environment criteria, Alex should begin the transition into the general class setting for reading content area class. Thus, Ms. Peck sought a way to best facilitate Alex's reintegration into the general classroom; and she chose to implement Collaborative Behavioral Contracting (CBC) as a way to meet Alex's reintegration goals. When Ms. Peck approached Ms. Smithson regarding the CBC, Ms. Smithson indicated a willingness to try the procedures with Alex in her classroom.

Intervention Research in Emotional and Behavioral Disorders: An Analysis of Studies from 1980–1993

The purpose of the current study was to examine the status of experimental research on interventions designed to modify behaviors of children and youth with emotional and/or behavioral disorders (EBD). Twelve journals published between 1980 and 1993 were surveyed to explore possible trends in five descriptive dimensions of the research, including subject characteristics, settings, research design, dependent variables, and independent variables (interventions). In addition, the database was examined to determine whether interventions were based on individualized processes of assessment. The results showed negligible trends, and very few studies reported interventions that were individualized on the basis of assessment data. The discussion addresses the general status of intervention research and the need for applied research.