Emission Performance Standards Research Articles

Context Matters: Variation in the Shortsightedness of European Climate Policy

AbstractWhen governments are faced with long‐term issues like climate change, it is often argued that they bias the short term over the long term, leading to inadequate policy responses. However, the shortsightedness of European Union (EU) climate governance has varied over time and between policy areas. This suggests that, under certain conditions, EU policy‐makers can formulate policies for the long term. This article examines the shortsighted mechanisms in the decision‐making of the European Commission, European Parliament and Council of the EU on two groups of cases: (1) the 2030 Climate Framework and the Fit for 55 Package and (2) the 2014, 2019 and 2023 Regulations on the CO2 emission performance standards for new passenger cars. The article reveals that responsiveness to electoral and interest group concerns differs amongst EU institutions, and depending on the shortsightedness of these concerns, their own shortsightedness may likewise vary.

Putting on the brakes: the shortsightedness of EU car decarbonization policies

The EU styles itself as a climate leader, yet its emission reduction objectives are seen as insufficient to limit global warming. While the European Green Deal (EGD) increased the farsightedness of some aspects of EU climate legislation, its objectives still fall short of what is required. To better understand shortsightedness in EU climate policy, this article examines the shortsightedness of sectoral climate legislation: the EU Regulations on the CO2 emission performance standards of new passenger cars (2009, 2014, 2019, Fit For 55). It applies a shortsightedness framework composed of four criteria: (1) consistency of standards with long-term goals; (2) stringency and (3) adaptability of the legislation; and (4) presence of long-term thinking. The assessment shows that the Car Regulations have been characterized by a high degree of shortsightedness, worsened by loopholes for carmakers and symbolic stringency. While the inconsistency between the car emission standards and the economy-wide emission reduction objectives increased over time, the zero-emissions by 2035 standard of the Fit For 55 Regulation is in line with the economy-wide net-zero by 2050 objective. Research into what drives shortsightedness in the EU could shed light on the nature of this shift.

Cost-effective reduction of fossil energy use in the European transport sector: An assessment of the Fit for 55 Package

This paper surveys climate and energy policy in the EU transport sector covering the road, aviation, and shipping sectors. We summarise current policies, focusing on the Fit for 55 Package, and link the different instruments being used (e.g. cap-and-trade, tax, mandate, performance standard, or subsidy) to different sources of market failure. Next, we analyse the static and dynamic cost-efficiency of the policies and instruments. We find that they address a range of market inefficiencies, but that there are still a number of aspects that can further improve the cost-effectiveness of current EU climate policies in the transport sector. For example, higher taxes and emission performance standards for aviation and shipping, the right combination of research and innovation investments and learning-by-doing policies, and balancing implicit carbon prices by revising the road tax system and adding congestion tolls and charges. Finally, European policy has important side effects on the rest of the world that need to be taken into account in the selection of policies. This improved set of policies can support a sustainable recovery and reach the European Union's climate targets at the lowest cost.

Pioneers of electric mobility: Lessons about transport decarbonisation from two bay areas

Electric mobility has the potential to spearhead transport decarbonisation. While there is a vast literature on the potential benefits of electric vehicles (EVs) towards sustainability and national policies of EV adoption, regional and local polices are often overlooked. Hence, this paper aims to capture lessons learned from two bay areas, namely the Guangdong-Hong Kong-Macau Greater Bay Area (GBA) in China and the San Francisco Bay Area (SFBA) in the United States. These two regions are pioneers in electric mobility within the two largest economies of the world. An integrative methodology of transport decarbonisation and backcasting analysis are applied to analyse the progress achieved so far (2000–2018) and to project future carbon reduction potentials (2019–2050). Regional and local transport CO2 emissions are estimated by a distance-based approach. The results illustrate that electric mobility has led to carbon reductions of 1.73 Mt CO2 and 0.25 Mt CO2 in 2018 in GBA and SFBA respectively, contributing to a relative decoupling status in both regions (e = 0.85 &e = 0.14). Intra-regional variability in decoupling status is observed, with stronger spatial variations in GBA. The backcasting analysis suggests that the EV share needs to reach almost 100% before 2035 so that the 450 Delayed Action vision can be achieved. This requires a proactive policy package of cleaner electricity with emissions performance standards, EV sales mandates, expanded public charging infrastructure, and a range of measures to incentivize EV market uptakes. Major driving forces of decoupling, including vehicle kilometre travelled, public transport share, and regional/local EV policies, are also identified and discussed.

Will blue hydrogen lock us into fossil fuels forever?

Will blue hydrogen lock us into fossil fuels forever?

Climate policies for freight transport: Energy and emission projections through 2050

Reducing energy consumption and emissions from freight transport plays an important role in climate change mitigation. However, there remains a need for enhanced policy making and research to explore decarbonization of freight transport. This research establishes a freight transport model to simulate transport demand, energy consumption and emissions, and applies the model to Ireland with scenarios running out to 2050. This model provides advanced technological details in freight transport modelling, responses of transport demand to economic changes, and behavioural responses in the representation of competition between transport technologies. The results show a strong growth of land freight transport demand in Ireland resulting from economic growth (GDP) despite increasing carbon taxes. The new EU CO2 emission performance standards on light and heavy-duty vehicles have the potential to effectively slow down the growth of energy consumption from 2015 to 2050 but possible technical barriers need to be evaluated to ensure full compliance. In the short term, carbon taxation (or higher fuel prices) may have a greater impact but the effect of emission performance standards will be realised in the longer term as the vehicle stock is replaced with new technology vehicles. Notably, adoption of biofuel and alternative freight vehicles are expected to bring additional reductions in future energy consumption and emissions. For a low carbon future for freight transport, integrated efforts are needed to develop a comprehensive policy agenda (technology specific standards and pricing mechanisms) and promote low or zero emission vehicles technologies, especially for heavy goods vehicles.

GHG policy impacts for Seattle’s buildings: targets, timing, and scope

Many US cities are addressing climate change by setting goals to reduce their greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions by a specified amount within a specified time period. In order to achieve these goals, reducing emissions from existing buildings is crucial. Many cities are passing legislation to target existing buildings through benchmarking, auditing, retuning, or energy or emissions performance standards. As cities design legislation, they must consider the timing of the policies, how to prioritize building types and sizes, and how these design decisions will impact the city’s emissions. This paper addresses these questions for one particular US city: Seattle, Washington. A model of Seattle’s building stock was created with benchmarking and tax assessor data. It was then used to predict GHG emissions reductions due to different policy implementations for existing commercial and multifamily buildings. Key findings are: (1) the proposed emissions policy is expected to reduce cumulative emissions from buildings by 19% between 2020 and 2050; (2) delaying the implementation of the policy by five years could limit savings to 12%; and (3) including smaller buildings in the policy could increase savings to 34%. The lessons learned and how this can be used by other cities are discussed. <em><strong>Policy relevance</strong></em> As cities design legislation for energy performance standards, they must consider the impact that the timing of policies, prioritization of building types and sizes, and electrification will have on the city’s GHG emissions. A new process is presented that can assist policymakers to understand the impacts of policy decisions on decarbonizing the building stock. A model of Seattle’s building stock was created to predict emissions reductions due to different policy implementation scenarios. This model shows the impact of Seattle’s proposed emissions policy. The current policy is expected to reduce cumulative emissions from buildings by 19% between 2020 and 2050. If the implementation of the policy is delayed by five years, then cumulative emissions savings would be reduced to 12%. The inclusion of smaller buildings in the policy could increase cumulative emissions savings to 34%. Other cities can use this process to better understand their proposed policies for their building stock.

Decarbonizing Transport in the European Union: Emission Performance Standards and the Perspectives for a European Green Deal

The transport sector is a major driver of climate change both globally and in the European Union (EU). While the EU as a whole is showing declining carbon emissions, transport-related emissions are higher than in 1990. Car traffic is responsible for around 12 percent of the EU’s total greenhouse gas emissions. EU Commission President Ursula von der Leyen underlined the efforts to strengthen the decarbonization of the EU at the end of 2019 by publishing the European Green Deal (EGD) communication. In this paper, we analyze the controversy surrounding the emission performance standards for cars adopted in spring 2019. Car manufacturers must reduce the average carbon emissions of their fleets by 37.5% between 2021 and 2030. In this respect, the new emission performance standards are more ambitious than the previous ones. However, our argument is that without a major shift in the balance of power, extensive decarbonization and a departure from car-centered transport development will not be possible. Therefore, it is crucial for mobility research to critically engage with lobbying power in the EU and with concepts such as environmental leadership, which often underexpose the structural power of incumbent actors and existing path dependencies.

Global future role of power CCUS technologies

CCUS technologies are essential for meeting global temperature targets because of their ability to decarbonize hard to abate sectors and provide negative emissions when paired with bioenergy. In the power sector the International Energy Agency’s (IEA) Sustainable Development Scenario (SDS) foresees an average global CCUS build rate of 16 GW/year from 2020 to 2040. However, current deployment rates languish far below this level, as there are currently only two operational power CCUS plants with a combined capacity of 355 MW. Both are retrofitted coal plants, but most future climate models require a diverse CCUS portfolio consisting of coal/gas CCUS plants, bioenergy with CCS (BECCS) and using CCUS in a hydrogen power generation chain. This study is commissioned by IEAGHG and aims to understand the evolving future roles of different CCUS technologies in various power markets and policy measures which can overcome current barriers to deployment. The UK, USA, People’s Republic of China (China) and Australia are selected as model power markets as they represent some of the leading countries in the CCUS space. First, a techno-economic analysis is undertaken which compares the economic feasibility of CCUS options with counterfactual technologies (nuclear, unabated gas/coal, battery storage) under different operational modes (baseload, mid-merit, peaking generation) for each country. Later, a literature review is undertaken to determine policy recommendations which may overcome deployment barriers for post-combustion CCUS, BECCS, power generation through hydrogen, CCUS retrofits and flexible CCUS operations. Finally, the existing CCUS policy support in each of the four countries is reviewed along with region specific recommendations to make CCUS technologies more viable in each country. It is found that globally BECCS, gas CCUS and hydrogen are viable options for baseload, mid-merit and peaking generation, respectively. Hydrogen power generation is the lowest cost low-carbon option for flexible backup generation for sustained periods (>8 hours) of high demand, complimenting batteries which are cheaper for shorter periods. However, peaking hydrogen would require a higher support mechanism in the USA and Australia compared to other regions due to relatively more expensive hydrogen costs. Gas CCUS is likely to be one of the most economic mid-merit and baseload technologies, even in regions without domestic gas resources due to its lower costs than alternatives. BECCS is expected to be a strategic technology for climate targets due to the associated negative emissions, thus it is expected to be deployed in all regions to a certain extent, even if it is not the lowest-cost CCUS option. China is the only region where coal CCUS is competitive with other CCUS technologies at high load factors and hydrogen power is very cost-effective irrespective of operational mode. The two main reasons for this divergent result for China are the low-cost domestic coal availability and the opportunity for cheap hydrogen production through coal gasification with CCS. Economic constraints relating to high upfront capital investment requirement and lack of mechanisms to recover high operational expenses are found to be the two major barriers to CCUS deployment. Capital challenges can be alleviated by tax credits, public procurement, grants, concessional loans, direct equity investment, progressive financing, international financing institutions and export credit agencies. Operational expenses can be addressed through policies such as feed-in-tariffs, contract for differences, emission performance standards, CCUS obligations with tradable CCUS certificates or additional revenues from CO2 utilization. Each country is likely to use some combination of these policies to incentivize capture plants, while the transport & storage part of the supply chain may be handled by dedicated companies that are publicly owned or supported through regulated models. The above measures must be supplemented by specific policies that focus on different CCUS applications. Retrofits would benefit from imposing retrofit readiness criteria to all new plants, while BECCS would require recognition of negative emissions and establishing strong biomass sustainability criteria. Developing appropriate business models for the low-carbon hydrogen supply-chain would be vital for deploying hydrogen power. Lastly, flexible CCUS is extremely understudied for policy purposes and new policies, such as flexible contract for differences, must be developed and tested to encourage peaking plant operation. The four countries studied have varying levels of regulatory and policy support for CCUS, but all must improve their financial incentives through adopting some of the measures proposed above. Regulatory improvements, such as fossil fuel phase-out plans, CCUS readiness requirements and limiting post-closure liabilities of CO2 storage companies are some of the common recommendations for each country. Additionally, each country may improve on their existing schemes, policies and use their existing financial institutions more efficiently to incentivize mass deployment of CCUS technologies at levels consistent with global climate models.

Operation Performance and Economic Efficiency Analysis of Power Plant Boilers Ultra-low Emission Facilities

In this paper, four units of a power plant are taken as the research object, and the air pollutant emission performance standards, equipment installed economic efficiency, operational economic efficiency and energy saving potential of four units using different technical methods for ultra-low emission transformation are analyzed. Take unit 4 as an example, the ultra-low emission operation cost is discussed. The results show that the operation performance, stability and reliability of some units of low-temperature economizer need to be improved; the K values of different ultra-low emission technology methods were between 7.6∼12kW/MW. The installation of a low temperature economizer allows the wet desulfurization facility to have a greater water saving capacity.

The potential of integrating vehicular emissions policy into Ghana’s transport policy for sustainable urban mobility

Auto vehicle emissions are a major challenge for ambient air pollution control in most developing countries including Ghana. Major auto emissions, particulate matter, are critical road transport emissions that threaten human health and the environment but are often excluded from policy discussions. In Ghana, vehicle acquisition schemes are not environmentally friendly and current national policies have alienated the monitoring of airborne emissions from the transport sector. This calls for the design and implementation of green transport and fuel economy options. We discuss the critical role of motor vehicle particulates in Ghana and propose policy solutions for sustainable urban mobility. We have shown that environmental remediation, social equity and sustainability can only be achieved when transport emissions are properly integrated in a coordinated transport policy. Ghana has a National Transport Policy that recognizes the challenges of environmental pollution due to vehicular emissions and uneconomic fuel consumption. There are green fuel policy proposals and a vehicle testing and licensing regime that is largely driven by mechanical and electrical functionality. Auto-vehicle emissions performance standards have not been developed and technical capacity for emissions testing is lacking. Ambient air monitoring is limited to particulate matter which is not nationally representative as it is confined to Greater Accra Region at only 15 sites. 77% of road users believe 20% of all cars in urban centres visibly exude fumes. Noise pollution and vehicular emissions were reported at 78% and 75% of 160 respondents respectively. Vehicle owners, drivers and driver unions are apprehensive of electric cars but would welcome a reliable, convenient and efficient mass transport system. Abatement strategies to reduce vehicular emissions particulates will require integrated solutions and inter-agency collaboration among regulatory institutions. The Environmental Protection Agency and Driver and Vehicle Licensing Authority should be empowered to develop emissions performance standards and conduct real time monitoring of particulates with the assistance of the Motor Traffic and Transport Department of the Ghana Police Service. It is further recommended that volatile organic compounds, particularly benzene series contaminants, should be monitored by the Agency. Further research on vehicular emissions of volatile organic compounds and their health effects on road users should be carried out to understand the full impact of exposure of on-road emissions.

Extended Abstract: Operation of Carbon-Capture Integrated into Industrial Combined-Heat-and-Power Plants - Dependency on Hourly to Seasonal Load Changes

Partial capture, i.e. capture of a part of the CO2 accessible from the plant, is motivated by a reduced capture cost and thus, an easier implementation of carbon capture and storage (CCS). Partial capture, as defined in the work by Biermann et al. [1], may be favorable in case of 1) multi-stack sites; 2) achieving emission performance standards; 3) sites with access to low-value excess heat that can power the capture process; 4) industries with ability to adapt their production to variations in energy market conditions and perform CO2 capture in cases with low revenues for heat and electricity generation. This work discusses partial capture from heat and power plants integrated with an industrial site, i.e. points 3) and 4) above. Energy-intensive industrial sites (e.g. steel or pulp and paper mills) are often multiproduct facilities selling their excess electricity and low-value heat as district heating from on-site combined-heatand- power plants (CHP). The demand for electricity and district heating varies with the time of day, weather conditions and season. Excess energy not deemed valuable are disregarded through cooling, emission of warm gases, or through flaring. The aim of the present work is to map the variations in production and available excess heat from an integrated steel mills and investigate the effect of these variations on the capture plant and its performance.

How CCS Policy and Regulations Influence the Business Risk of CCS Projects

The relation between CCS policy and regulatory frameworks with the business risk of CCS projects was examined based on expert and potential stakeholder interviews and economic feasibility evaluation including cash flow analyses of a hypothetical CCS project. We found some significant business risks can be mitigated or enhanced by policy and regulation changes. The largest risk for CCS projects where the revenue relies on carbon price is the instability of carbon price policy. A stable revenue scheme of CO2 emission reduction supported by a legal and regulatory framework is the most important factor to reduce business risk. Also, CCS policy such as emission performance standards to promote CCS projects which do not rely on a carbon price is an option to reduce the business risk of CCS through policy and a regulatory framework. Since CO2 seepage monitoring requirements of CCS permits is a source of business risk to induce misdetection of CO2 seepage, realistic and practical requirements may need to be developed. Business risks derived from low infectivity of CO2 into geological reservoirs can be mitigated by flexible injection permits. The study results imply the necessity for the development of a policy and regulatory framework as experience in CCS projects is accumulated over time.

Permitted emissions of major air pollutants from coal-fired power plants in China based on best available control technology

Based on the activity level and technical information of coal-fired power-generating units (CFPGU) obtained in China from 2011 to 2015, we, 1) analyzed the time and spatial distribution of SO2 and NOx emission performance of CFPGUs in China; 2) studied the impact of installed capacity, sulfur content of coal combustion, and unit operation starting time on CFPGUs’ pollutant emission performance; and 3) proposed the SO2 and NOx emission performance standards for coal-fired power plants based on the best available control technology. Our results show that: 1) the larger the capacity of a CFPGU, the higher the control level and the faster the improvement; 2) the CFPGUs in the developed eastern regions had significantly lower SO2 and NOx emission performance values than those in other provinces due to better economic and technological development and higher environmental management levels; 3) the SO2 and NOx emission performance of the Chinese thermal power industry was significantly affected by the single-unit capacity, coal sulfur content, and unit operation starting time; and 4) based on the achievability analysis of best available pollution control technology, we believe that the CFPGUs’ SO2 emission performance reference values should be 0.34 g/kWh for active units in general areas, 0.8 g/kWh for active units in high-sulfur coal areas, and 0.13 g/kWh for newly built units and active units in key areas. In addition, the NOx emission performance reference values should be 0.35 g/kWh for active units in general areas and 0.175 g/kWh for new units and active units in key areas.

Environmental policy, technology adoption and the size distribution of firms

The potential impacts of strict environmental policies on production costs and firms' competitiviness are central to the choice of which policy to implement. However, not all the industries nor all firms within an industry are affected in the same way. In this paper, we investigate the effects of emission taxes, uniform emission standards, and performance standards on the size distribution of firms. Our results indicate that, unlike emission taxes and performance standards, emission standards introduce regulatory asymmetries favoring small firms. On the contrary, emission taxes and performance standards reduce to a lower extent profits of larger firms but they do modify the optimal scale of firms. We also show that when the regulatory asymmetries created by emissions standards are taken into account, the profitability of emissions reducing technologies is higher under emission standards than under market-based instruments.

Are Emission Performance Standards Effective in Pollution Control? Evidence from the EU's Large Combustion Plant Directive

This paper explores the extent to which emissions limits on stack concentrations under the Large Combustion Plant (LCP) Directive succeeded in mitigating local air pollutants from thermal power stations in the European Union. We take advantage of the discontinuities in regulation status to show that the emission performance standards led to sizeable declines in concentrations of SO2 , NOx, and particulate matter from the oldest fleet of combustion plants. We also find that the average response from the existing old plants was stronger than that from the relatively new existing fleet. Taking into account that new plants were not myopic in complying to the standards, we estimate the treatment effect close to the regulation discontinuity date – showing that more stringent performance standards were effective. Finally, those that opted-out were not more likely to retire than similar combustion plants that chose to comply with standards - some evidence of grandfathering-induced shutdown delays.

The Role of the Market and Traditional Regulation in Decarbonising China’s Energy Supply

The introduction of an Emissions Trading Scheme (ETS) to decarbonise the Chinese economy faces challenges relating to the tradition of heavy regulation that characterises the functioning of the largest carbon-emitting sector – coal-fired electricity production. This article examines what scope there is for the market to drive the decarbonisation of China’s electricity supply, when hitherto most emission reductions have been achieved through traditional regulation (eg., emissions performance standards and the forced closure of inefficient installations). The importance of traditional regulation does not mean that the ETS will not contribute to the decarbonisation of China’s energy supply, but the role of the ETS will be different from that in liberalised energy markets (eg, the European Union) where the market is supposed to be the main driver of emission reductions. In China, the role of the ETS will be limited to helping achieve the energy investment targets set under the government’s central planning policy.

Carbon Dioxide Emissions as an Indicator of Reduction of Negative Externalities Related to Road Motor Vehicle Operation

This contribution deals with issues of carbon dioxide emissions generated by road motor vehicles in the Czech Republic and the European Union. We discuss the current need for the introduction of environmental features to the system of taxation of motor vehicles, aiming at the mitigation of harmful substances emitted into the atmosphere. The most harmful substance produced during the combustion of hydrocarbon fuels by motor vehicles is CO2, whose emissions are subsequently used as an instrument for green tax reforms in the European Union member states.In this article we define the main EU legal standards regulating harmful substances emitted into the atmosphere as a result of road motor transport. We may cite for instance the Regulation (EC) No. 443/2009 setting CO2 emission performance standards for new passenger cars. The aim of the European Union is to reduce average emission values of new passenger cars sold in the EU to 130 g CO2/km by 2015 and to 95 g CO2/km by 2020. Assessment of tax on motor vehicles according to CO2 emissions shall help fulfil commitments from the Kyoto Protocol, aiming at the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions.

Water impacts of CO2 emission performance standards for fossil fuel-fired power plants.

We employ an integrated systems modeling tool to assess the water impacts of the new source performance standards recently proposed by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency for limiting CO2 emissions from coal- and gas-fired power plants. The implementation of amine-based carbon capture and storage (CCS) for 40% CO2 capture to meet the current proposal will increase plant water use by roughly 30% in supercritical pulverized coal-fired power plants. The specific amount of added water use varies with power plant and CCS designs. More stringent emission standards than the current proposal would require CO2 emission reductions for natural gas combined-cycle (NGCC) plants via CCS, which would also increase plant water use. When examined over a range of possible future emission standards from 1100 to 300 lb CO2/MWh gross, new baseload NGCC plants consume roughly 60-70% less water than coal-fired plants. A series of adaptation approaches to secure low-carbon energy production and improve the electric power industry's water management in the face of future policy constraints are discussed both quantitatively and qualitatively.

Feasibility of Solid Fuel CLC Plant Investment in the Future Energy Systems Including High Share of Solar and Wind

It is predicted that share of solar and wind energy will be increased in the future energy systems. The competitiveness of these technologies is further improved if strict climate policy and for example consequent high costs for CO2 emissions or emission performance standards will be applied, leading to increased electricity prices. This will bring demand for more flexible large scale energy production and/or energy storages due to the intermittency of solar and wind energy production at different timeframes, for example between day and night and different seasons. In addition, it is notable that future integration of electricity markets and grids will expand the area impacted by intermittent renewables. Possible and predicted high economic value for CO2 emissions and emission standards are also a rationale for the development of CCS technologies. After the investment, variable operational expenditures of solar and wind power are low in comparison with other low carbon technologies and therefore these plants are utilised before others. This will impact also on the utilisation rates of plants equipped with CCS. In this paper techno-economic analyses of industrial scale Chemical Looping Combustion (CLC) power plant are presented in different market situations. Feasibility of CLC investment and the utilization of such plant is investigated and compared to oxyfuel and air combustion references in energy system which contain high share of solar and wind power. The CC-Skynet™ toolkit, created by VTT during Finnish CCS projects, enables comparison of economic feasibility of different CCS technologies in different market scenarios, including varying prices for electricity, CO2 emission allowances, fuels, plant utilisation rates, etc. In addition, in the case of CLC, sensitivity analysis are possible also for example for prices of different oxygen carriers, investments etc. The toolkit is highly versatile but it does not include modelling of any physical phenomena which are required as inputs. The economics of CCS are evaluated from investor's (local energy company) point of view including the effects on the existing energy system. Effect of CCS on greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and operation economics of the CCS cases are compared to the reference energy system with varying parameters of operation. Electricity production efficiency of CLC power plant is higher than in power plants based on solid fuel and other CO2 capture technologies, because CLC does not require large air separation unit or solvent regeneration. Higher net efficiency in electricity production by CLC results lower specific production costs in comparison to other CCS technologies. This probably leads to higher utilisation rate for CLC which is important for example in terms of payback time for the investment or required break- even price for CO2 emissions. Results show that CLC may be more competitive in comparison to other CCS technologies due to higher electrical efficiency. Economic feasibility is dependent on several factors which are uncertain in the case of future energy system. However, it is probable that high CO2 prices lead to increased electric price such that electrical efficiency has large dominant effect on feasibility. Investment costs do not dominate in comparison between CCS technologies. Feasibility of CCS is different between geographical locations due sensitivity of transport and storage.