Emission Factors Of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons Research Articles

Provincial emission inventory of atmospheric polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in China

China, as the largest global emitter of atmospheric polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), exhibits significant variation in energy structure and technological capabilities among provinces. It is vital to construct a provincial-level emission inventory of PAHs, fully considering these provincial disparities, for assessing the environmental budgets and instituting effective mitigation measures. This study constructed a dataset of provincial PAHs emission factors based on downscaling estimates by incorporating the Human Development Index (HDI). These emission factors were combined with the latest activity rate data to estimate PAHs emissions from individual provinces in China from 2007 to 2017. The national total PAHs emissions in our study were 11.8–12.3% higher than the previous emission inventory results. The validation results indicated that the inventory-based PAHs emissions were significantly correlated with the simulated emissions by an atmospheric box model and watershed model. From 2007 to 2017, nearly three-quarters of provinces declined in PAHs emissions resulting from technological advancements and environmental standard improvements, leading to a 34.4% reduction (from 118.5 to 77.8 Gg) of the national total. The industrial sector was consistently the dominant contributor (51.9–66.4%) with a growing trend in its share. This growth was dominantly contributed by less developed provinces, such as Heilongjiang, Ningxia, and Qinghai, indicating that there was a shift of industrial sectors and associated PAHs emissions from highly concentrated industrial regions to nascent industrial regions. This study provides essential data support for a comprehensive understanding of each province's emission responsibilities regarding PAHs and for assessing the potential risks that PAHs pose to human health and ecosystems in these provinces.

Tracking Interprovincial Flows of Atmospheric PAH Emissions Through Downscaling Estimates With Province‐Specific Emission Factors

AbstractAtmospheric polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), which are emitted significantly by economic sectors, are closely related to the global incidence of human cancer. When assessing temporal changes in PAH emissions in a country that is vast in area, such as China, it is crucial to consider socioeconomic differences across geological regions. In this study, we developed PAH emission factors at the provincial level and used them to compile a Chinese PAH emission inventory. Subsequently, we estimated trade‐driven PAH emissions at the provincial level in 2007, 2010, 2012, 2015, and 2017, and examined the critical supply chain paths. The updated inventory reveals a distinct temporal trend in trade‐driven PAH emissions, although they remain at an order of magnitude similar to previous estimates. National total production‐, consumption‐, and income‐based PAH emissions, despite a rebound in 2012, exhibit a general decline from 59.3, 43.3, and 48.8 kt in 2007 to 52.1, 43.9, and 47.0 kt in 2017, respectively. These declines align with economic adjustments and emissions mitigation legislation. Spatial hotspots were concentrated in the most affluent Yangtze River Delta, Pearl River Delta, and Jing‐Jin‐Ji provinces on the demand side and in the northern coal resource‐rich provinces on the supply side. They primarily drive PAH emissions from the heavy industrial sectors of northern coal resource‐rich provinces. Fewer affluent provinces have experienced a rapid increase in trade‐driven PAH emissions after 2012, emphasizing the need for synergistic reduction measures to combat PAH pollution.

Emission profiles, source identifications, and health risk of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in a road tunnel located in Xi'an, China.

Understanding the sources and characteristics of PM2.5-bound PAHs from traffic-related pollution can provide valuable data for mitigating air contamination from traffic in local urban regions. However, little information on PAHs is available regarding the typical arterial highway-Qinling Mountains No.1 tunnel in Xi'an. We estimated the profiles, sources, and emission factors of PM2.5-bound PAHs in this tunnel. The total PAH concentrations were 22.78 ng·m-3 and 52.80 ng·m-3 at the tunnel middle and exit, which were 1.09 and 3.84 times higher than that at the tunnel entrance. Pyr, Flt, Phe, Chr, BaP, and BbF were the dominant PAH species (representing approximately 78.01% of total PAHs). The four rings PAHs were dominant (58%) among the total PAH concentrations in PM2.5. The results demonstrated that diesel and gasoline vehicles exhaust emissions contributed 56.81% and 22.60% to the PAHs, respectively, while the corresponding value for together brakes, tyre wear, and road dust was 20.59%. The emission factors of total PAHs were 29.35 μg·veh-1·km-1, and emission factors of 4 rings PAHs were significantly higher than those of the other PAHs. The sum of ILCR was estimated to be 1.41×10-4, which accorded with acceptable level of cancer risk (10-6-10-4), PAHs should not ignored as they still affect the public health of inhabitants. This study shed light on PAH profiles and traffic-related sources in the tunnel, thereby facilitating the assessment of control measures targeting PAHs in local areas.

Environmental and health risk implications of unregulated emissions from advanced biofuels in a Euro 6 engine

The use of conventional and advanced biofuels is part of the efforts to reduce greenhouse gases and harmful exhaust gaseous emissions. This study investigates the unregulated emissions in gas and particles from a Euro 6b diesel engine, operated with four unconventional and advanced biofuels (two hydrogenated terpenic biofuels, a polyoxymethylene dimethyl ether, and a glycerol-derived biofuel), blended with diesel fuel and pure hydrotreated vegetable oil as base biofuel. The engine was operated following WLTC starting from cold-engine conditions. Gas phase samples were collected at each phase of the driving cycle and particulate matter (PM) samples were collected from a dilution tunnel at the end of the driving cycle. A total of 16 PAH and 13 carbonyls were analyzed. In addition, the apoptotic index induced by gas and particle emissions was determined. In the gaseous phase, the total PAH and carbonyl emission factors were higher at the low-speed phase for all fuels. Gas-phase PAH emission factors exceeded particle-bound PAH. Carbonyl emission factors ranged from 0.12 ± 0.012 to 25.3 ± 4.2 mg/km, markedly exceeding gaseous PAH emissions, which ranged from 20.7 ± 1.5 to 51.7 ± 8.9 μg/km. Diesel fuel exhibited the highest carbonyl emissions and its blend with 20% of hydrogenated turpentine exhibited the highest PAH emissions at the end of the WLTC, both due to high emissions at the low-speed phase. Although particle-bound PAH comprise only a small fraction of total PAH emissions, both phases (gas and particles) contributed approximately equal to the toxicity associated with carcinogenic PAH. The apoptotic cells percentage increased in a dose-dependent manner and was significantly higher in cells exposed to gas phase-derived samples. The apoptotic index induced by particulate matter samples did not show a concentration-response effect for any of the fuels.

Determination of 16 particle-phase polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in herbal incense by ultrasonic extraction-gas chromatography-mass spectrometry and analysis of emission characteristics

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) have attracted global attention because they are carcinogens and mutagenic to humans. To date, more than 200 PAHs have been found. The United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) has designated 16 PAH species as priority control pollutants due to their highly toxic substances. Herbal incense is frequently used in daily life. As a result, it is critical to investigate its impact on human health and environmental safety. However, research on particle-phase PAHs is very limited and inapplicable. The current research focuses mainly on bamboo incense, which has a simpler formula than herbal incense.In this study, the emission factor and emission characteristics of particle-phase PAHs from herbal incense were described. A method combining ultrasonic and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) was developed for the simultaneous determination of 16 particle-phase PAHs of herbal incense. The settings for extraction solvent, ultrasonic time, and instrument analysis conditions were optimized. In the test chamber, samples were collected by burning 0.8 g of herbal incense. After combustion, PAHs adsorbing on the particles of herbal incense were collected on a quartz filter. The whole filter sample was sliced and extracted with n-hexane-dichloromethane (1∶1, v/v). A rotary evaporator was used to concentrate the extract. GC-MS was used to analyze the prepared sample. The internal standard method was used to perform quantitative analysis on the target compounds. The linearities of the 16 target PAHs were good between mass concentrations of 0.1-5.0 μg/mL, with correlation coefficients greater than 0.998. The method detection limits (MDLs) of the 16 PAHs ranged from 0.4 to 3.8 ng/g. The 0.625 μg/g and 1.25 μg/g spiked recoveries ranged from 77.4% to 99.5% and 82.0% to 101.3%, respectively. The relative standard deviations (RSDs) of the 16 PAHs were ranged from 0.7% to 7.2% (n=6). The emission factors of particle-phase PAHs from five different kinds of herbal incense ranged from 4.60 to 11.89 μg/g. The highest concentration of phenanthrene (Phe) was found in 16 particle-phase individual PAHs of herbal incense. Fluoranthene (Flu), pyrene (Pyr), chrysene (Chr) and anthracene (Ant) concentration were ranked after Phe. The sum of these five proportions was 73.00%-89.97%. The proportion of Phe in herbal incense particle-phase PAHs was significantly higher than that of other indoor combustion sources. As a result, Phe could be used to identify individual PAHs in the particle-phase of herbal incense. The particle-phase PAHs were mainly distributed on the 3-ring and 4-ring, with a sum of 83.84% to 96.31% on the 3-ring and 4-ring. The proportion of high-molecular weight PAHs in the samples ranged from 44.25% to 63.31%. The proportion of low-molecular weight PAHs in the samples ranged from 36.69% to 55.75%. The incense source could be distinguished from other indoor combustion sources by its distinctive Phe/Flu ratio. The established method has high sensitivity, simple operation, and requires fewer samples. This method is suitable for rapidly detecting PAHs in burning incense. At the same time, it provides scientific data for further studies on the distribution and health effects of particle-phase PAHs of herbal incense.

Pahs emission characteristics and the mitigation in the valuable products from used mineral oil thermolysis recycling

Pyrolysis of used mineral oil (UMO) to produce various valuable products is a flexible and efficient way for UMO recycling. Along with the preferred pyrolytic products, toxic polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) may also be generated. To mitigate the PAHs emission during UMO pyrolysis, an understanding of emission characteristics and formation mechanism of PAHs is needed. In this work, four used minerals (engine, hydraulic, turbine, transformer) oil and three base oil were pyrolyzed at 600 °C at different heating modes (slow: 10 °C min−1, medium: ∼1000 °C min−1, fast: greater than10000 °C min−1) under N2/CO2 atmosphere. The results show that a higher heating rate can lead to more gas but less oil production. At different heating modes, PAHs emission factors change markedly and are in the range of 34.63–1492.85 ug g−1, among which more than 92 % of PAHs are enriched into pyrolytic oil. Naphthalene, phenanthrene and pyrene are the first three PAHs species in the gaseous product. The mechanism of evaporation and chemical evolution control PAHs formation for the SP process and FP process, respectively. PAHs formation is related to both the naphthene and aromatic contents of UMO, and the contribution of aromatics is about fourfold of the naphthenes. In the CO2 atmosphere, more liquid product and ∼ 33 % less PAHs formation can be realised due to the depressed dehydrogenation reaction.

Comprehensive characterization of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon emissions from heavy-duty diesel vehicles utilizing GC × GC-ToF-MS

Comprehensive characterization of diesel vehicle emitted polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) emissions is yet to achieve due to the limitation of analytical methods. Therefore, we herein developed a two-dimensional gas chromatography time-of-flight mass spectrometry (GC × GC-ToF-MS) method and quantified the total PAHs from diesel vehicles based on their characteristic fragments and mass spectral patterns. Overall, the emission factors (EFs) of total PAHs (gas + particle) are observed to range from 4.1 ± 2.5 mg km−1 to 51.4 ± 22.2 mg km−1 under cold-start and hot-start conditions for one China IV and two China VI heavy-duty diesel vehicles (HDDVs), of which the un-speciated PAHs account for more than 97%. Gaseous PAHs (g-PAHs) are dominated by three-ring PAHs, whereas particulate PAHs (p-PAHs) are dominated by two-ring PAHs. The total PAHs partition significantly into the gas phase for whole fleets and cycles, except that five-ring PAHs partition almost completely into the particle phase. The aftertreatment technologies (e.g., diesel particulate filter, DPF) significantly reduce the total PAH emissions by 49.8 ± 33.2%. The minimum toxic equivalency factors (TEFs) are deployed to estimate the toxicity of the total PAHs. Much higher toxicity is obtained than those in previous studies, indicating that the PAH toxicity of diesel vehicle emissions might be largely underestimated.

Mutagenicity and carcinogenicity of combustion emissions are impacted more by combustor technology than by fuel composition: A brief review.

Studies during the past 50 years have characterized the carcinogenicity and mutagenicity of extractable organic material (EOM) of particulate matter (PM) in ambient air and from combustion emissions. We have summarized conclusions from these studies and present data supporting those conclusions for 50 combustion emissions, including carcinogenic potencies on mouse skin (papillomas/mouse/mg EOM), mutagenic potencies (revertants/μg EOM) in the Salmonella (Ames) mutagenicity assay, and mutagenicity emission factors (revertants/kg fuel or revertants/MJthermal) in Salmonella. Mutagenic potencies of EOM from PM in ambient air and combustion emissions span 1–2 orders of magnitude, respectively. In contrast, the revertants/m3 span >5 orders of magnitude due to variable PM concentrations in ambient air. Carcinogenic potencies of EOM from combustion emissions on mouse skin and EOM‐associated human lung cancer risk from those emissions both span ~3 orders of magnitude and are highly associated. The ubiquitous presence of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), nitroarenes, and aromatic amines results in mutagenic and carcinogenic potencies of PM that span only 1–3 orders of magnitude; most PM induces primarily G to T mutations. Mutagenicity emission factors of combustion emissions span 3–5 orders of magnitude and correlate with PAH emission factors (r > 0.9). Mutagenicity emission factors were largely a function of how material was burned (highly efficient modern combustors versus open burning) rather than what materials were burned. Combustion systems that minimize kinetic and mass‐transfer limitations and promote complete oxidation also minimize the mutagenicity of their emissions. This fundamental engineering principle can inform environmental and public health assessments of combustion emissions.

Predicting the total PAHs concentrations in sediments from selected congeners using a multiple linear relationship

In this study, we observed that four congeners, including naphthalene (Nap), acenaphthylene (Acy), phenanthrene (Phe), and benz(a)anthracene (BaA), are the characteristic congeners for predicting the emission and the sediment concentrations of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). A novel multiple relationship of the total PAHs concentrations (C∑PAHs) in sediments with the concentrations of four congeners was established (p < 0.01, R2 = 0.95) using published data over the past 30 years. Moreover, the multiple linear relationship of the total PAHs emission factors with the emission factors of four congeners was also established (p < 0.01, R2 = 0.99). Interestingly, the ratio of multicomponents coefficient from the multiple linear relationship in sediments to that from the multiple linear relationship in emission sources correlated positively with octanol–water partition coefficient (logKow) (p < 0.01, R2 = 0.88) of the four PAHs congeners. Therefore, a novel model was established to predict CΣPAHs in sediments using the emissions and logKow of the four characteristic PAHs congeners. The percent sample deviation between calculated C∑PAHs and their observed values was 54%, suggesting the established model can accurately predict CΣPAHs in sediments.

Emission characteristics and formation mechanisms of PM2.5 and gases from different geological maturities coals combustion

To evaluate the influence of geological maturity on coal combustion pollutant emissions, six chunk coals and corresponding briquettes (volatile matter [VM] content from 8.0% to 39.9%) were selected for simulated residential combustion in a carefully designed chamber, and the formation mechanism involved was investigated. VM was revealed to have a nonlinear effect on the emission factors (EFs) of particulate matter with an aerodynamic diameter of <2.5 μm (PM2.5), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), elemental carbon (EC), and organic carbon (OC), with the highest EFs observed in VM of 15.8% and 26.8%. Coal tar yield and air-supply from VM combustion in its initial stage was found to be a key factor influencing PM2.5 and PAH emissions when compared with the char combustion and burnout stages. The highest PM2.5 and PAH EFs were observed in coal with 15.8% VM. Additionally, significant amounts of hydrogen cyanide (HCN) were detected at stage 1 and were released as volatile-N through the pyrolysis of coal-N. N2O and NOx were also emitted through homogeneous gas-phase HCN reactions. However, only a small proportion of NOx was produced, indicating that the contribution of VM to HCN and N2O emissions is greater than that of NOx. In the char reaction stage (stage 2), char-N reacted with O2 to form large amounts of NO, and the reaction length of the entire coal combustion process exhibited a positive relationship with coal maturity (correlation coefficient 0.69, p < 0.05), suggesting that the contribution of NO from char-N to overall NO emissions increased with the coal’s geological maturity due to the increase in coal-N retention in char. Furthermore, coal briquetting was found to decrease the EFs of pollutants, which may be explained by an increase in MCE (modified combustion efficiency) and the conversion from coal tar to carbon and hydrogen. This study elucidated the effects of geological maturity on pollutant emissions from coal combustion and examined relevant underlying mechanism. These data can serve as the foundation for a clean coal project in China or other counties concerned with coal combustion emissions.

Gas and particle phase polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon emission factors from a diesel vehicle engine: Effect of operating modes in a developing country context

Airborne polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) arising from diesel exhaust emissions are of concern due to their significant human health and environmental impacts. Engine dynamometer experiments with a light duty diesel engine were conducted to measure PAH emissions representative of developing country conditions, and thereby determine emission factors at two different engine operating modes that are representative of idling and severe real-world conditions, respectively. We employed a portable denuder device for the simultaneous sampling of gaseous and particulate PAH emissions, the components of which were subsequently individually thermally desorbed and analysed by two-dimensional gas chromatography with time-of-flight mass spectrometric detection (TD-GCxGC-ToF-MS). Results indicated that PAH emission factors differed significantly for the different modes of engine operation with the highest emission factor being for idle mode with a total PAH emission factor of 1181.14 μg/kg. Under real-world conditions, it is expected that further variance in emission factors will be introduced as a result of brake and tyre wear, different engine technologies, engine age and maintenance, as well as fuel quality and measurement methods. • A portable denuder sampled gas and particles phase PAHs simultaneously. • Emission factors differ significantly for different engine operation modes. • Idle mode showed higher emission factors than maximum power mode. • PAHs in the exhaust emissions were predominantly found in the gas phase.

On-site measured emission factors of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons for different types of marine vessels

A portable emission sampling system was used to perform on-site measurements of the emission factors (EFs; quantities of pollutants emitted per unit of energy consumed) of 29 polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) for five types of marine vessels using light diesel in Hainan Province, China. Both gaseous- and particulate-phase PAHs from vessel emissions were sampled and measured using gas chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry (GC-MS), and the PAH EFs were calculated based on the carbon mass balance method. The average EFs of gaseous- and particulate-phase PAHs were 6.2 ± 7.8 and 17 ± 26 mg/kg, with naphthalene (NAP) and phenanthrene (PHE) dominating the gaseous- and particulate-phase PAH emissions, respectively. Among the five types of vessels, the EFs for small fishing boats were significantly higher than those for other types of vessels, and the lowest EFs were found for tug boats. Composition profiles and typical isomer ratios of PAHs were calculated for five types of vessels. Particulate-phase PAHs accounted for 63 ± 16% of the total emissions of 29 PAH species, and the particulate/gaseous-phase partitioning of PAHs was dominated by organic carbon (OC) absorption rather than black carbon (BC) adsorption. Emission factors of PAHs under different activity conditions were measured and calculated, and relatively higher EFs were found in the maneuvering mode for medium fishing boats and in the operating mode for engineering vessels. No significant differences were found among the PAH composition profiles under different activity conditions.

Emission of PM2.5-Bound Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons from Biomass and Coal Combustion in China

Field measured PAH emissions from diverse sources in China are limited or even not available. In this study, the PM2.5-bound PAH emission factors (EFs) for typical biomass and coal combustion in China were determined on-site. The measured total PAH EFs were 24.5 mg/kg for household coal burning, 10.5–13.9 mg/kg for household biofuel burning, 8.1–8.6 mg/kg for biomass open burning, and 0.021–0.31 mg/kg for coal-fired boilers, respectively. These EF values were compared with previous studies. The sources profiles of PAHs for four sources were developed to use in chemical mass balance receptor modelling. BaP equivalent EFs (EFBaPeq) were calculated to evaluate PAH emission toxicity among different combustion sources, and were 6.81, 2.94–4.22, 1.59–3.62, and 0.0006–0.042 mg/kg for those four types of sources, respectively.

Parent, alkylated, oxygenated and nitrated polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in PM2.5 emitted from residential biomass burning and coal combustion: A novel database of 14 heating scenarios.

To characterize the emissions of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) from residential biomass burning and coal combustion in field environments, smoke samples were collected from the combustion of six types of biomass in heated kangs and four types of coal in traditional stoves and semi-gasifier stoves. The emission factors (EFs) of the total PAH were in the range of 84.5-344mg/kg for biomass burning, with lower EFs for biomass with higher densities, and in the range of 38.0-206mg/kg for coal combustion, with lower EFs for coals with higher maturity. Moreover, EFs were lower from high-density biomass fuels (wood trunk, 84.5±11.3mg/kg) than low-maturity coals (bituminous coal, 206±16.5mg/kg). Parent, oxygenated, alkylated, and nitrated PAHs accounted for 81.1%, 12.6%, 6.2%, and 0.1%, respectively, of the total-PAH EFs from biomass burning, and 84.7%, 13.8%, 1.4%, and 0.1%, respectively, of the total-PAH EFs from coal combustion. PAH source profiles differed negligibly between biomass fuels but differed significantly between bituminous coal and anthracite coal fuels. The characteristic species of sources were phenanthrene, 9-fluorenone, and 2-nitrobiphenyl for biomass burning, and were phenanthrene, benzo[ghi]perylene, 1,4-naphthoquinone, and 2-nitrobiphenyl for coal combustion. The ratios of benzo[b]fluoranthene/(benzo[b]fluoranthene+benzo[k]fluoranthene) were 0.40-0.45 for biomass burning and 0.89-0.91 for coal combustion, and these significantly different values constitute unique markers for distinguishing these fuels in source apportionment. Benzo[a]pyrene-equivalent factor emissions were 2.79-11.3mg/kg for biomass and 7.49-41.9mg/kg for coal, where parent PAHs contributed 92.0%-95.1% from biomass burning and 98.6%-98.8% from coal combustion. Total-PAH emissions from residential heating were 1552t across Shaanxi province, to which wheat straw (445t) in biomass burning and bituminous coal (438t) in coal combustion were the highest contributors. Results from this study provide crucial knowledge for the source identification of PAHs as well as for the design of abatement strategies against pollutant emissions.

PAHs emissions from residential biomass burning in real-world cooking stoves in rural China

Indoor biomass burning is a major contributor to the emission of PAHs (polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons) in China. To date, estimates of PAH emissions from the burning of biomass have involved considerable uncertainty, mostly from the lack of real-world measurements of emission factors. In this study, we conducted a comprehensive evaluation on PAH emissions from biomass burning in real-world cooking stoves in three Chinese provinces. PAH emission factors, in both particle- and gas-phase, from 11 fuel-stove combinations were measured and the provincial emissions were estimated based on the measured emission factors and fuel consumption. The measured PAH28 emission factors (including 16 US EPA priority PAHs and 12 non-priority PAHs) ranged from 42 mg/kg to 370 mg/kg, with an order of magnitude difference, which was mostly affected by fuel type. The emission factors measured in this study were generally higher than those reported in laboratory studies and were comparable with field studies. The gas-particle distribution indicated that the absorption of PAHs by organic carbon in particulate matter (PM) was the dominant sorption mechanism in gas-particle distribution. The composition profile was different from previous studies, especially for non-priority PAHs, which are highly toxic and should be given more attention. Following the disparities in composition profiles, our study suggests that source apportionment based on single- or multi-diagnostic ratios may lead to large bias and uncertainties. It appears that the toxicity potential of PAHs in northern China emitted from combustion of crop residues is greater than that in southern China where PAHs are mainly emitted from wood combustion.

Emission factors of ultrafine particulate matter (PM

Data for source apportionment estimation was obtained from combustion of 11 types of biomass (rubber wood, palm kernel, palm fiber, sugarcane bagasse, sugarcane leaves, maize residue, rice stubble, rice straw, Xylocarpus moluccensis, Avicennia alba Blume and Rhizophora mucronata) and bituminous coal. Combustion was carried out in a tube furnace and emitted particulate matter (PM) was collected using a nanosampler that segregated particle sizes down to 0.1 μm. Emission factors of PM < 0.1 μm were in the range of 0.11–0.28 g kg−1 (∼1–8% of total PM), except in the case of Rhizophora mucronata, which had an emission factor of 0.071 ± 0.004 g kg−1 (∼18% of total PM). The dominant polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) found on PM < 0.1 μm were chrysene from combustion of rubber wood, palm kernel, palm fiber, maize residue, Xylocarpus moluccensis, Avicennia alba Blume, Rhizophora mucronata and bituminous coal; benzo[b]fluoranthene from combustion of rice straw, sugarcane bagasse and sugarcane leaves; and benzo[k]fluoranthene from rice stubble combustion. The emission factors of PAHs bound to PM < 0.1 μm from biomass combustion ranged from 0.005 to 0.044 mg kg−1 and the emission factor from bituminous coal combustion was 0.1411 ± 0.0004 mg kg−1. The carcinogenic potency equivalent or benzo[a]pyrene equivalent was highest from bituminous coal combustion (0.1252 mg kg−1) and between 0.0019 and 0.0192 mg kg−1 from biomass combustion. However, emission factors of both PM and particle-bound PAHs from biomass combustion were affected by moisture content of biomass and moisture contents of biomass used in this study were quite low, ranging from 0.165 to 0.863%.

Emissions of particulate matters, volatile organic compounds and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons from warm and hot asphalt mixes

Emissions of hazardous organic chemicals from crumb rubber modified (CRM) asphalt mixes have been longstanding environmental and occupational health concerns. This study aimed to quantify the emissions of volatile organic compounds (VOCs), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and total suspended particles (TSP) from CRM and polymer asphalt mixes. Occupational exposure, during paving construction activities, to particulate matter (PM) in different size was also evaluated for pavement workers by a personal exposure monitoring approach. Overall, chamber test results showed that CRM hot mix asphalt (C-HMA) emitted higher levels of VOCs and PAHs than CRM warm mix asphalt (C-WMA), whereas C-WMA emitted a higher level of TSP. Lighter PAHs dominated the emitted ∑12 PAHs in both C-HMA and C-WMA, but compositions of VOCs varied greatly between asphalt groups. The emission factors for TSP and PAHs were 110 and 2.6 μg/kg asphalt for C-HMA, and 260 and 1.3 μg/kg asphalt for C-WMA, respectively. In addition, personal exposure level of PM was overall below the exposure guideline for asphalt fumes. The results from this study are expected to contribute to a comprehensive risk assessment of using ground tyre rubber techniques in road paving industries.

In vitro evaluation of the cytotoxicity, mutagenicity and DNA damage induced by particle matter and gaseous emissions from a medium-duty diesel vehicle under real driving conditions using palm oil biodiesel blends

The influence of palm oil biodiesel content on the cytotoxicity, mutagenicity and genotoxicity of particle- and gas-phase diesel vehicle emissions was investigated. The emissions were collected on-board of a EURO IV diesel truck, fuelled with mixtures of 10% (B10), 20% (B20) and 100% (B100) of palm oil biodiesel, under real driving conditions. Organic extracts of the particulate matter (PM) and gases were characterised for 17 PAH (including EPA priority) and used for the biological assay. Increasing biodiesel content in the fuel mixture results in a decrease in the PM and PAH emission factors, both in the particulate and gas-phase. The majority of the PAH are present in the gas-phase. The mutagenic potencies, in TA98 bacteria, are higher for B20 in both phases, whereas the mutagenicity emission factor, that takes into account the lower emission of PM and PAH, is not significantly different between the fuels. Higher direct mutagenicity (TA98 + S9) is observed in all the tested fuels, indicating the action of carcinogenic compounds other than non-substituted PAH. The gas-phase extracts present higher cytotoxicity and genotoxicity in lung epithelial cell A549, which may be related to the higher PAH content in the gas-phase. The increase in biodiesel content have a different impact on cytotoxicity, being larger in the gas-phase and lower in the particle-phase. This indicates that pulmonary toxicity may be higher for the gaseous emissions, due to the role of different toxic compounds compared to the PM. The adverse biological effects when biodiesel content increases are not consequent with the reduction of the PAH characterised, indicating that other toxic compounds are more relevant. Further investigations to identify these compounds are required in order to update and focus the efforts regarding emission targets and controls.

Low Tar Level Does Not Reduce Human Exposure to Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons in Environmental Tobacco Smoke.

Environmental tobacco smoke (ETS) is known to pose potential risk to human health, but the effects of tar level remain to be clarified. In the present study, ETS samples from two cigarette types with different tar levels in a 72.5 m3 room were collected for measurement of 16 polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). Urine samples of volunteers participating in smoking events were collected and analyzed for eight hydroxyl-PAHs. The concentrations, compositions, and particle size distribution patterns of PAHs from higher-tar and lower-tar cigarettes were similar, while the emission factors of PAHs from higher-tar cigarettes were lower than those from lower-tar cigarettes. Furthermore, the change in the concentrations of PAH metabolites in urine samples before and after smoking was not attributed to tar level. Assuming that a single cigarette was smoked in a 100 m3 room, the estimated average inhalation cancer risks for different age groups from exposure to PAHs in ETS were below 1.0 × 10-6, but potential risks should not be overlooked, especially considering that only inhaled particle-bound PAHs in ETS were included in this assessment. Apparently, reduced tar levels would not necessarily lead to lowered risk of exposure to PAHs. Kicking the habit is perhaps the best choice to minimize any potential health risk.

Different formation mechanisms of PAH during wood and coal combustion under different temperatures

Residential solid fuel combustion (RSFC) is a major contributor to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in the atmosphere, which are strongly related to negative health impacts. During RSFC, the variations of PAH emission factors (EFs) and size-resolved profiles are known to be highly affected by fuel type and combustion temperature. In this study, to investigate the behavior of emitted PAH, combustion experiments were performed using three wood and three coal types under different temperatures (500 °C and 800 °C) in a quartz tube furnace. The results show that the average EFs of PAH (17-EPA-PAHs) from low temperature coal combustion were nearly three times higher than those from low temperature wood combustion. However, with high temperature, PAH emissions from wood combustion increased two-fold and that from coal combustion decreased by two orders. Furthermore, And the proportion of high-molecular-weight PAHs (HPAHs) increased with increasing temperature in wood combustion, but decreased in coal combustion. This indicates that PAH synthesis was the dominant process during wood combustion, while pyrolysis of coal supramolecular structure was the main formation pathway of PAH during coal combustion. In addition, more low-molecular-weight PAHs (LPAHs) were emitted, with 0.006 μm–0.050 μm and 0.223 μm–1 μm particles in the early burning stage, while more HPAHs were emitted in the later burning stage, with larger particles in the size range of 0.050 μm–0.223 μm. This means that the PAH formations were different during each burning stage.