Emigration Research Articles

The Impact of High Immigration in Lithuania: Addressing Challenges and Understanding Consequences

The maxim "too much of a good thing can turn sour" holds significant relevance across diverse aspects of life, indicating that exceeding optimal thresholds may result in negative outcomes if not carefully regulated; this principle can be observed in the context of immigration rates in Lithuania, an Eastern European country experiencing significant influxes of foreign nationals. Immigration, defined as the movement of individuals into a country for specific purposes, can lead to adverse consequences when unregulated, such as overcrowding, strained social amenities, increased costs due to heightened demand, and potential rises in crime rates. Lithuania has welcomed foreigners for work, business, research, studies, and other purposes. Additionally, the unstable situation in Ukraine has prompted the Lithuanian government to extend support to Ukrainian citizens, offering incentives such as subsidized education and various forms of assistance. However, the generous immigration policies have faced challenges. The Migration Department, under the Ministry of Interior, recently announced impending stricter immigration laws due to identified irregularities, including instances of fraudulent marriages with Lithuanian citizens. Moreover, the increased cost of amenities, food prices, and housing have raised concerns about the sustainability of current immigration levels. This research focuses on examining the immigration and emigration rates in Lithuania and their economic impact over a decade (2013-2022). The study will involve sourcing data from official websites, conducting statistical analyses, and drawing insights from the analyzed data. The goal is to postulate findings, offer recommendations, and draw conclusions on the relationship between immigration rates and economic outcomes in Lithuania.

Emigration and tax revenue

The World Migration Report 2020 shows that the number of international migrants increased from 84 million in 1970–272 million in 2019, accounting for 3.5% of the world’s population. This paper investigates the aggregated effect of emigration on the tax revenue of sending countries with a focus on developing nations. Using a gravity approach, we construct a time-varying exogenous instrument out of measures of changes in transportation technology from geographic time-invariant dyadic characteristics. Then, we follow an instrumental variable approach where we use our predicted emigration rate as an instrument of the observed migration rate. The results show that the predicted emigration rate is a good instrument of the current emigration rate for developing countries, and that there is a positive aggregated effect of emigration on tax revenue of sending countries. The results vary depending on the type of tax: emigration increases goods and services tax revenue, but it decreases income, profit, and capital gains tax revenue.

Japa model: A mathematical framework for analyzing brain drain in Africa

In Nigeria, Africa’s most populous country, the concept of japa in which people flee harsh economic circumstances in quest of better possibilities, has become more common. This study investigates the critical problem of brain drain in Nigeria as the largest populated country in Africa, concentrating on the reasons that contribute to the phenomena, such as a lack of access to lucrative opportunities and widespread inequality. The study examined the dynamics of migration using a mathematical model that accounts for the population of the emigration source, the number of opportunities at the source, the size of the emigration population, and the population of returnees. We estimated the model’s parameters based on actual data from trusted sources. We derived and explained the basic emigration number, emigration-free, and persistent emigration equilibrium states of the model. Sensitivity studies were used to understand how different model parameters affect the emigration rate and the basic emigration number. This analysis highlights the relationship between economic, societal, and personal factors that influence migration, providing valuable insights for policymakers and scholars addressing migration issues. Our findings emphasize the necessity of developing equitable opportunities to mitigate brain drain and suggest strategies for retaining talent within the country.

Spatial ecology and population dynamics of brown trout Salmo trutta L. in reservoirs and headwater tributaries.

This investigation compared the spatial ecology and population dynamics of brown trout Salmo trutta L. between reservoirs with (impact; Langsett Reservoir) and without (control; Grimwith Reservoir) barriers to fish movements into headwater tributaries, and the effectiveness of a fish pass intended to remediate connectivity. Passive integrated transponder (PIT) telemetry revealed that fish that emigrated from Langsett and Grimwith tributaries were 1-3 and 0-2 years old, respectively, and predominantly did so in spring and autumn-early winterin both systems. Weirs at Langsett Reservoir appeared to thwart emigration rate (26%) relative to Grimwith Reservoir (85%). Acoustic telemetry (two-dimensional positions) in the impacted reservoir revealed thatthe largest home range was in October-December (95% monthly activity space S.D. up to 26.9 ± 6.69 ha in November), activity was influenced by both month and time of day, and fish occupied shallow water depths (relative to reservoir depth), especially at night. Brown trout tagged in Grimwith and Langsett Reservoirs (42.9% and 64.1%, respectively) and fish tagged in the tributariesthat emigrated (37.2% and 27.7%, respectively) were detected immigrating into tributaries throughout the year. At both reservoirs, peak immigration for ≥3-year-old trout occurred primarily in autumn-early winter. Overall passage efficiency went from 3% prior to remediation to 14% after and there was no significant increase in fish densities following the construction of the fish pass. Fish were attracted towards and entered the fish pass under a wide range of river levels, but only succeeded in passing upstream during low levels, which are uncommon druing the main migration period. Overall, this investigation significantly furthers our understanding of brown trout spatial ecology and population dynamics in reservoirs and headwater tributaries.

Immigrants and narrative

Since 1960 immigration has been mainly intra-continental on the African continent. With more countries achieving independence and the decline of colonization, there has been a significant decrease of intra-continental migration. Compared to the rest of the continent, South Africa has a relatively low emigration rate. The rate of people emigrating to European countries from Africa is higher than those who emigrate within the African continent. The narrative church provides the space for migrants to exercise their agency. Challenging distorted and false identities is one way of exercising agency. Narrative church welcomes migrants as the Other that form identity of both those who participate in the Christian narrative and those who are connected with the narrative through distant ways such as dialogue, virtual or intellectual and practical engagements.

Understanding Left-Behind Places in a Contrastive Approach

Abstract How are left-behind places in a country compared to other types of places in an Eastern European country? A typology of local human development is designed and tested for the case of the Romanian society. The United Nations model of human development (structured by the three dimensions of education, economic development and health) is adapted to the local level and two contrasting measures are designed – an index and a typology of local human development. The typology resulted from a cluster analysis. It is validated by bi-variate and multivariate analysis (multinomial regression). High emigration rates, irrespective of the destination, do not bring lower development to the local origin in Romania: the destination of migration counts. There is a higher probability, in 2018, of left-behindness in localities with a higher number of emigrants to Italy in the years preceding 2011. Human development is highly differentiated by destination countries of emigration and by historical subregions. It is especially for such contexts that the quantitative approach could be misleading. Public policy targets could be better identified if qualitative and quantitative approaches are simultaneously used. The proposed approach could be adopted by keeping the same dimensions and measuring them by available and appropriate indicators.

The Role of Urban Green Spaces on Life Satisfaction and Migration Willingness in Tirana, Albania

In the framework of place attachment we explore how green spaces contribute to life satisfaction in a context of high emigration rates. We propose that green spaces affect life satisfaction of the population through the mediation of physical health and mental health, and this relationship is moderated by migration willingness. We conducted our study in March–April 2021 in the city of Tirana, Albania. Using physical and mental health indicators, our results demonstrate that urban green spaces directly and indirectly affect life satisfaction. The mediators with the highest impact on life satisfaction are psychological distress and well-being. Green space exposure plays a role in influencing health outcomes, but the relationship is not moderated by migration willingness, and it shows a higher impact on participants with better mental health. Designing more and improved urban green spaces is a pathway to positively affect the health and well-being of urban populations.

The impact of natural hazards on migration in the United States and the effect of spatial dependence

In this paper, we analyze the effect of natural hazards on migration in the United States (US) and the importance of spatial dependence in such assessments. We use two measures of migration: migration rates and flows. The model for migration flows is estimated using the gravity model, whereas out- and in-migration rates are analyzed using the spatial Durbin model. Our results indicate there is a major and significant impact of economic damage caused by natural hazards on out-migration rates and outward migration flows. In the spatial Durbin model and in the gravity model, a $1,000 dollar damage per capita is associated with an increase in out-migration of 16.0% and 9.1%, respectively. However, when spatial dependence is not accounted for, the effect of natural hazards on migration is substantially overestimated: the coefficients are 1.5–2 times larger when spatial dependence is not considered.

Female political leaders and R&D investment

This study employs a difference-in-differences method to analyse how female political leaders affect corporate R&D investment. Our findings indicate that female political leaders exert a positive influence on R&D investments. Moreover, these positive effects are more pronounced among high-tech firms and those operating in developed economies, although they appear to be less significant for defence firms. Additionally, we demonstrate that the presence of female leaders correlates with a reduced rate of inventor emigration to other economies, suggesting that female leadership may contribute to the retention of skilled inventors. Consistent with these primary results, firms exhibit a decrease in R&D investment following the departure of female political leaders from office. Furthermore, during the tenure of female leaders, firms also tend to reduce their cash holdings. We explore potential channels and observe that female leadership results in less external conflict and thus promote R&D investment.

Downed wood removal effects on survival and site fidelity of woodrats in a California oak woodland

AbstractOwing to the increasing intensity and frequency of wildfires in the western United States, the removal of woody debris (downed dead wood and snags) from fire‐prone landscapes is being evaluated for wildfire mitigation. Consequently, the study of the ecological value of coarse woody debris to sustain dependent species has become of foremost importance. From 2004–2009, we used a before‐after control‐impact (BACI) study design to assess the effects of downed wood removal on a population of big‐eared woodrats (Neotoma macrotis) in an oak woodland (Quercus spp.) in coastal‐central California, USA. Using Pollock's robust design mark‐recapture analyses (with 12 primary capture occasions represented by trapping each spring and fall, and secondary occasions composed of 3 trap nights), we estimated survival and emigration rates. Further, applying mixed‐effects models, we evaluated the effects of 7 habitat attributes on woodrat abundance and reproduction. Following the experimental removal of downed wood from the 11 randomly selected treatment plots, woodrat survival was higher (P = 0.013), and emigration was lower (P = 0.007) among 11 control plots on which downed wood was retained. Woodrat abundance within plots was best predicted by stem density, demonstrating positive demographic associations with habitat complexity. Plot‐level reproductive success (i.e., the presence of juveniles within a plot during spring) was more likely with increasing snag density. These findings indicate that snags and downed dead wood are key components of high‐quality habitat for big‐eared woodrats. Management of woody debris to mitigate wildfire risk should consider the ecological value of this habitat attribute for big‐eared woodrats and other dependent species.

How Does the Spatial Structure of Urban Agglomerations Affect the Spatiotemporal Evolution of Population Aging?

China has fully become an aging society, and the scientific response to population aging has become a major task that the country must face in the future. Research on population aging in the Chengdu-Chongqing urban agglomeration (CCUA) can provide a scientific basis for future population management in the CCUA. This paper applies spatial autocorrelation, geodetection, and other methods to analyze the temporal and spatial pattern of population aging and its driving factors in the CCUA from 2000 to 2020, taking districts (counties) as the basic unit and combining them with the spatial structure of the urban agglomeration. The results show that: ① in the time dimension, the population aging in CCUA has gone through the evolution process of “mild–moderate–heavy”; in the spatial dimension, the influence of the urban agglomeration’s development planning axes on the spatial differentiation of the aging population has become more and more prominent. ② The aging level has a strong spatial correlation, and with time, the spatial correlation has changed from weak to strong, and the spatial difference has increased. The dual core city shows a typical spatial pattern of a decreasing aging level in the core area and an increasing aging level in the peripheral area, and the heavily aging area is spreading along the axis. ③ The overall aging speed is high, and the aging speeds of the core cities and node cities are lower than those of other regions. There is a clearer positive correlation between the aging level and the speed of aging, showing the characteristic of “the older the faster”. ④ Endogenous factors such as the aging level and fertility level at the beginning of the period have a significant determining power on the change in the aging level, while exogenous factors such as the in-migration rate and the out-migration rate have a persistent determining power on the urban agglomerations and key areas (core cities, central cities, main axes of development, city belts, and dense urban areas).

Who intended to leave? Patterns and impacts of Hong Kong's recent wave of migration

AbstractDuring Hong Kong's 2019 political turmoil and the subsequent impact of the coronavirus disease 2019 pandemic, a rapid rise in turnover rates in certain occupations, such as teachers, medical workers and civil servants, was observed. Some attributed this trend to the increasing rate of emigration. Previous studies have suggested that younger and better‐educated individuals are more likely to emigrate, and that the emigration of a specific group of the population has various impacts on the society of origin. Therefore, we explored the demographic characteristics of potential emigrants in Hong Kong and contrasted such findings with a previous wave of migration to examine the potential impact of the current wave. Based on a territory‐wide telephone survey, we found that (1) the associations of age and level of education with the intention to emigrate internationally (i.e., to destinations other than mainland China) corresponded to the typical young, well‐educated emigrant described in the literature; (2) a higher level of income was associated with a lower intention of international migration; (3) people in occupations such as professionals and managers, clerical and service workers and students reported a greater intention to emigrate than other groups; and (4) individuals born in Hong Kong were more likely to emigrate and less likely to move to mainland China than those born in mainland China. The implications of these intended migration patterns for ageing and fertility, short‐ and long‐term workforce shortages in tertiary sectors and the city's overall competitiveness are discussed.

Adoption of Property Tax Expenditure and Limitations by U.S. States

Property tax expenditure and limitations (TELs) are key tools used by U.S. states to control local government spending and taxing authority. This paper employs a multiple events history analysis to understand the factors influencing the adoption of county-level property tax TELs by state governments. The findings show that external factors such as policy learning, competition, imitation, and coercion play crucial roles in this process. Notably, the study reveals that higher out-migration rates and the presence of voter-based ballot initiatives significantly increase the likelihood of TEL adoption. Additionally, the spread of TELs is influenced more by national trends rather than neighboring state actions, highlighting the saliency of these policies. These findings shed light on the dynamics of policy diffusion and provide insights into the interplay between state-level decisions and local government financial autonomy. The study’s implications extend beyond public finance, offering a nuanced understanding of policy adoption and diffusion in federal systems.

Fertility Trends and Population Policy in the Canton of Sarajevo

The demography of Bosnia and Herzegovina fits into the Southeast-European trends with sub-replacement fertility and high emigration rates. At the national level, natural decline started in 2007, while migration is influenced by the war and its aftermath, as well as several economic and political push factors (low wages, corruption, high unemployment, etc.), and also has a serious impact on birth and death rates. On the other hand, demographic trends in the Canton of Sarajevo differ from the national pattern. It reached sub-replacement fertility more than a decade later (2019), and migration still has a positive balance: besides significant emigration rates, immigration to the Canton, especially from the other parts of Bosnia and Herzegovina, is higher. Since migration involves younger generations, it is also a factor behind the more favourable fertility rates, and can be evaluated as a consequence of better socio-economic development in the capital and its gravitational area. In the Canton, there have been several factors that contributed to the decline of birth rates in the past decades. Changing functions of family and children in the society, increasing women's employment, educational level and career aspirations, growing individualism and rationality, the changing social climate in relation to children, higher personal standards, and other socio-psychological factors should be mentioned. Birth rates were also (positively) influenced by other factors. One of the most important points is that the Canton has certainly one of the best support policies in Bosnia and Herzegovina including financial support and allowances for newborn children, subsidies in preschool education, primary and secondary schools as well as scholarships for pupils and students. Positive economic trends such as new constructions of residential buildings, business, and shopping centres, as well as an even stronger concentration of attractive institutions and activities should be emphasised. In 2021, the total fertility rate accounted for 1.38 in the Canton, while it has shown a great variation among the municipalities. The municipality with the lowest total fertility rate (Novi Grad) had the highest total number of live births in the Canton, while the municipality with the lowest total number of live births (Trnovo) was the only one with total fertility rate values above the replacement level. Due to its demographic, economic and political significance, the Canton of Sarajevo is a key area for population revitalisation in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Therefore, local measures have national significance, and can act as a model for the rest of the country in terms of population policy as well.

Analysis of the funding of social services from a spatial approach in Andalusia (Spain)

In Andalusia, Community Social Service Centres (CSSCs) are funded by regulations following demographic, geographic, economic, and social disadvantage criteria. This study aims to analyse the geographical distribution of funding per inhabitant of CSSC by catchment area in Andalusia in 2019, and to study the statistical associations between funding and a range of demographic and socioeconomic indicators. The study spatial units (n = 184) included the catchment areas of CSSCs and, in the case of intramunicipal areas in large municipalities, they were grouped at the municipal level. Spatial autocorrelation measures were used to identify spatial clusters of high/low funding rates per inhabitant. Later, nonspatial and spatial regressions were applied to search for associations with different indicators (sex ratio, ageing index, dependency index, emigration rate, immigration rate, unemployment rate, population density, and employment rate in the primary sector). The geographical distribution of the funding of social services in Andalusia was not random since the analyses identified several spatial clusters with significantly high (hot spots) and low (cold spots) funding per inhabitant (p < 0.05). The funding rates were significantly (p < 0.05) and directly associated with the ageing index and the percentage of primary sector employees, and indirectly with the proportion of foreigners in the population and the population density. The hot spots were mainly located in rural and deprived areas, while the cold spots were in urban areas. The variables related to the regulated funding distribution criteria were not fully associated with higher financing. Instead, other additional variables showed significant associations (p < 0.05), such as primary-sector workers and foreign populations. The results showed that spatial analyses may support service assessment and decision-making in social policy.

Optimizing release strategies for red king crab stock enhancement: Effects of release timing

Red king crab, Paralithodes camtschaticus, was commercially important around Kodiak, Alaska, USA, in the 1960s and 1970s; however, the stock crashed in the late 1970 s and has remained closed since 1983. The lack of recovery inspired consideration of stock enhancement through the release of hatchery-reared juveniles as a means to bolster the wild population. We examined the effects of release timing on in situ survival of hatchery-reared red king crab by releasing juveniles in June, August, and September 2015 in Trident Basin, Kodiak. We monitored densities inside and outside of release plots for six months using quadrat counts to determine loss and emigration rates. Relative predation risk was determined using tethering experiments performed after each release, and predator densities were quantified using quadrat counts and predator transect counts. Initial mortality over the first 24 h was approximately 53%, and subsequent mortality rates decreased with month-of-release, likely due to a combination of larger size-at-release and seasonal changes in predation. Although predator density was consistent over time, relative predation risk of tethered crabs decreased with season, suggesting later releases may be beneficial. However, the extended hatchery rearing period needed for later releases presents other challenges, including cannibalism, and the potential for developing maladaptive traits. Stock enhancement programs must balance these trade-offs to maximize overall success. Early releases of small juveniles immediately after settlement may be optimal if large-scale hatchery communal rearing results in significant juvenile production loss and/or hatchery conditioning is impractical.

Leave or Stay in Homeland

A short article by Marko and Andrijana Bilić about common doubts of young people in Serbia.&#x0D; Serbia is a small country with the highest rates of youth emigration in the Western Balkans. Since we are young people ourselves, we are aware of the question that is constantly imposed on young people - Leave or stay in the homeland? This confusion led us to compile a list of reasons in favor of leaving and staying in the country. If you are someone who is troubled by the same questions, maybe our perspective will help you make a decision.

Subjective Well-Being of NEET Based on Gender and Generation Survey in Moldova

NEET is an umbrella term for those who struggle with their school-to-work transition. It is a consensus today that NEET is an acutely heterogeneous group, and there are varying ways to classify its members. Some of them deliberately reject or postpone the school-to-work transition, for example, because they choose to fulfill their traditional gender role. In these cases, NEET is a conscious choice. In this article, the NEET classification was based on the individuals' well-being. Moldova gives a good opportunity to study NEET as this Eastern European country suffers from simultaneous socio-economic crises, including high emigration and poverty rates. The data were taken from the Gender and Generation Survey (GGS) conducted in 2020. Based on the previous research, the 15 - 29 age group was chosen (326 observations comply with the NEET conditions and are complete). The author chose the questions related to the following aspects of well-being: happiness, life satisfaction, and depression sentiments. The variables are categorical, and they were analyzed with a Latent Class Model. There are substantial correspondences between the NEET well-being classes and the causes of NEET. The results supplement the current knowledge on NEET heterogeneity from the side of self-assigned well-being rather than socio-economic inequalities.

Exploring the Population Exodus of Northeast China from the Perspective of Cultural Sociology——Cultural Blockage and the Outflow of College Students

The spatial migration of the population is a social phenomenon since ancient times. With the relatively stable natural growth rate, migration and flow have become significant factors affecting the size and structure of the regional population. According to the seventh national census in 2021, more serious population loss can be seen in Northeast China, where the outflow of a large number of high-quality population will lead to insufficient driving force for regional economic development. It has also become one of the vital reasons for the economic plight in Northeast China. Based on the employment emigration rate of college graduates in Shenyang, this paper explores the root of population outflow in Northeast China from the perspective of cultural sociology and puts forward relevant countermeasures and suggestions.

Validity of winter sampling for estimation of salmonid abundance by electrofishing

Electrofishing removal sampling is a common method for abundance estimation of juvenile salmonids in streams and is usually performed during autumn. European guidelines specify that sampling should be conducted at water temperatures ≥ 5 °C, but studies investigating the validity of sampling below this threshold are lacking. We conducted electrofishing experiments during autumn and winter in three Norwegian rivers, comparing abundance estimation accuracy, rate of fish emigration from electrofishing sites, and mortality for juvenile Atlantic salmon Salmo salar and brown trout Salmo trutta. Abundance estimates were significantly more accurate during autumn than during winter, less accurate for age-0 fish than for older parr, and more accurate when the number of electrofishing passes was increased. By digging through the substrate after electrofishing, we found that a higher proportion of fish were uncatchable during winter than during autumn, and that age-0 fish were more likely than older fish to be uncatchable. For salmon older than age-0, both autumn and winter sampling consistently yielded relatively accurate abundance estimates. However, the rate of fish emigration from electrofishing sites was significantly higher during autumn than during winter and if block nets are not used, emigration during autumn sampling could cause severe underestimation of Atlantic salmon abundance. Fish mortality did not differ between autumn and winter sampling and was low for both species and all age groups. We recommend the use of block nets and conducting five electrofishing passes to reduce the likelihood of severe estimation error.