Emergence Of Human Diseases Research Articles

Genome Characterization of a Tailam Virus Discovered in Brown Rats in Yunnan Province, China.

Paramyxoviridae is one of the most well known and largest virus families, including some animal and human pathogens, such as the Hendra, Nipah, and Rinderpest viruses, with a high potential for the emergence of human diseases. Based on recent phylogenetic analyses, two new genera (Narmovirus and Jeilongvirus) have been described. The newly recognized genus Jeilongvirus has rapidly increased in number and has grown to 15 species from 7 a few years ago. However, little is known about the diversity, host range, or evolution of Jeilongvirus. As a well-known host reservoir for many pathogens, rodents have always been the focus for characterizing their pathogenic potential. In this study, we isolated a Tailam virus strain (RN-JH-YN-2022-1) belonging to the genus Jeilongvirus from Rattus norvegicus in Yunnan Province, China. The virus presented a near-complete genome (19,046 nucleotides). Similar to other members of the genus Jeilongvirus, the genome of RN-JH-YN-2022-1 contains eight basic genes (3'-N-P/V/C-M-F-SH-TM-G-L-5') with 88.88% sequence identity to Tailam virus (TL8K). Additionally, we discuss the pattern of genus Jeilongvirus diversity and the possible route of spread of the Tailam virus, which could provide new clues into the host range, virus diversity, and geographical distribution of the genus Jeilongvirus.

Association of socioeconomic status and overactive bladder in US adults: a cross-sectional analysis of nationally representative data.

Socioeconomic status inequality is an important variable in the emergence of urological diseases in humans. This study set out to investigate the association between the prevalence of overactive bladder (OAB) and the poverty income ratio (PIR) that served as a more influential indicator of socioeconomic status compared to education and occupation. Data from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) conducted from 2007 to 2020 were used in this cross-sectional study. The association between the PIR and OAB was examined using weighted multivariate logistic regression and weighted restricted cubic splines (RCS). Additionally, interaction analysis was used for investigation to the connections between PIR and OAB in various covariate groups in order to confirm the stability of the results. We observed a noteworthy inverse association between PIR and OAB after adjusting for potential confounding variables (OR = 0.87, 95% CI, 0.84-0.90, p < 0.0001). PIR was transformed into categorical variables, and the association held steady after that (1.0 < PIR <4.0 vs. PIR ≤ 1.0, OR = 0.70, 95% CI =0.63-0.77, p < 0.0001; PIR ≥ 4.0 vs. PIR ≤ 1.0, OR = 0.56, 95% CI =0.48-0.65, p < 0.0001). Additionally, RCS analysis showed that PIR and OAB had a negative nonlinear response relationship. Subgroup analyses showed that the inverse association between PIR and prevalence of OAB was stronger in obese than in nonobese individuals (P for interaction < 0.05). In our study, we observed a significant negative association between the PIR and the prevalence of OAB. In the future, PIR could be used as a reference standard to develop strategies to prevent and treat OAB.

RNA-binding proteins potentially regulate the alternative splicing of apoptotic genes during knee osteoarthritis progression

BackgroundAlternative splicing (AS) is a principal mode of genetic regulation and one of the most widely used mechanisms to generate structurally and functionally distinct mRNA and protein variants. Dysregulation of AS may result in aberrant transcription and protein products, leading to the emergence of human diseases. Although considered important for regulating gene expression, genome-wide AS dysregulation, underlying mechanisms, and clinical relevance in knee osteoarthritis (OA) remain unelucidated. Therefore, in this study, we elucidated and validated AS events and their regulatory mechanisms during OA progression.ResultsIn this study, we identified differentially expressed genes between human OA and healthy meniscus samples. Among them, the OA-associated genes were primarily enriched in biological pathways such as extracellular matrix organization and ossification. The predominant OA-associated regulated AS (RAS) events were found to be involved in apoptosis during OA development. The expression of the apoptosis-related gene BCL2L13, XAF1, and NF2 were significantly different between OA and healthy meniscus samples. The construction of a covariation network of RNA-binding proteins (RBPs) and RAS genes revealed that differentially expressed RBP genes LAMA2 and CUL4B may regulate the apoptotic genes XAF1 and BCL2L13 to undergo AS events during OA progression. Finally, RT-qPCR revealed that CUL4B expression was significantly higher in OA meniscus samples than in normal controls and that the AS ratio of XAF1 was significantly different between control and OA samples; these findings were consistent with their expected expression and regulatory relationships.ConclusionsDifferentially expressed RBPs may regulate the AS of apoptotic genes during knee OA progression. XAF1 and its regulator, CUL4B, may serve as novel biomarkers and potential therapeutic targets for this disease.

Genomic diversity of Vibrio spp. and metagenomic analysis of pathogens in Florida Gulf coastal waters following Hurricane Ian.

Evidence suggests warming temperatures are associated with the spread of potentially pathogenic Vibrio spp. and the emergence of human disease globally. Following Hurricane Ian, the State of Florida reported a sharp increase in the number of reported Vibrio spp. infections and deaths. Hence, monitoring of pathogens, including vibrios, and environmental parameters influencing their occurrence is critical to public health. Here, DNA sequencing was used to investigate the genomic diversity of Vibrio parahaemolyticus and Vibrio vulnificus, both potential human pathogens, in Florida coastal waters post Hurricane Ian, in October 2022. Additionally, the microbial community of water samples was profiled to detect the presence of Vibrio spp. and other microorganisms (bacteria, fungi, protists, and viruses) present in the samples. Long-term environmental data analysis showed changes in environmental parameters during and after Ian were optimal for the growth of Vibrio spp. and related pathogens. Collectively, results will be used to develop predictive risk models during climate change.

Detection of multidrug-resistant Staphylococcus aureus isolated from dairies milk in Medowo Village of Kediri District, Indonesia

Abstract. Putra GDS, Khairullah AR, Effendi MH, Lazuardi M, Kurniawan SC, Afnani DA, Silaen OSM, Waruwu YKK, Millannia SK, Widodo A, Ramadhani S, Farizqi MTI, Riwu KHP. 2023. Detection of multidrug-resistant (MDR) Staphylococcus aureus isolated from dairies milk in Medowo Village of Kediri District, Indonesia. Biodiversitas 24: 423-430. Bacterial resistance has emerged as a major concern in dairy farms in Indonesia due to the pervasive usage of antibiotics. Furthermore, no specific research has been done to explain the prevalence of Staphylococcus aureus in isolated milk from dairy cows in Kediri, particularly in Medowo Village, and their antibiotic resistance. Moreover, to control the emergence of diseases in humans brought on by dairy cow's milk or infections transmitted through milk, additional research on the prevalence and resistance of bacteria in dairy farms in the Kediri district is urgently required. In Medowo, the Village Kandangan of District, Kediri Regency, Indonesia, 100 dairy cow's milk samples were taken from farms in numerous hamlets. The Kirby-Bauer method performed an antibiotic sensitivity test using disk diffusion. The sensitivity test was attached with antibiotic discs on tetracycline, penicillin, gentamicin, erythromycin, and cefoxitin. According to sample evaluation results, S. aureus was detected in 94 (94%) of the 100 isolated milk samples based on morphological culture features, Gram staining, and biochemical assays. According to the profile of antibiotic resistance derived from the findings of the S. aureus antibiotic resistance test, 23 isolates (24.47%) were proven to be multidrug-resistant (MDR) because they were resistant to three to four classes of antibiotics. The use of antibiotics typically rises in response to an increase in the prevalence of disease in cattle, which could lead to higher levels of antibiotic residue in milk and possibly higher levels of bacterial resistance to antibiotics. Therefore, dairy farming requires methods for prudently and correctly employing antibiotics.

A bat MERS-like coronavirus circulates in pangolins and utilizes human DPP4 and host proteases for cell entry.

It is unknown whether pangolins, the most trafficked mammals, play a role in the zoonotic transmission of bat coronaviruses. We report the circulation of a novel MERS-like coronavirus in Malayan pangolins, named Manis javanica HKU4-related coronavirus (MjHKU4r-CoV). Among 86 animals, four tested positive by pan-CoV PCR, and seven tested seropositive (11 and 12.8%). Four nearly identical (99.9%) genome sequences were obtained, and one virus was isolated (MjHKU4r-CoV-1). This virus utilizes human dipeptidyl peptidase-4 (hDPP4) as a receptor and host proteases for cell infection, which is enhanced by a furin cleavage site that is absent in all known bat HKU4r-CoVs. The MjHKU4r-CoV-1 spike shows higher binding affinity for hDPP4, and MjHKU4r-CoV-1 has a wider host range than bat HKU4-CoV. MjHKU4r-CoV-1 is infectious and pathogenic in human airways and intestinal organs and in hDPP4-transgenic mice. Our study highlights the importance of pangolins as reservoir hosts of coronaviruses poised for human disease emergence.

Immunoselective progression of a multi-epitope-based subunit vaccine candidate to convey protection against the parasite Onchocercalupi

Globalization has resulted in an increasing worldwide movement of humans and animals as well as changes in the external environment, temperature, and social interactions, resulting in the accelerated emergence of new diseases in humans and dogs, such as Onchocerca lupi-caused ocular onchocerciasis. Presently, zoonotic onchocerciasis affects 15.5 million people globally; however, the lack of effective anthelmintics and vaccinations highlighted the disease as a global public health concern. Therefore, the current study offers computational methods for anticipating and creating a multi-epitope subunit vaccine targeting Onchocerca lupi by utilizing suitable linkers and adjuvants to combine CTL, HTL, and BCL epitopes. Three different vaccines (V1, V2, and V3) were designed using three distinct adjuvants and then the vaccine constructs antigenicity, solubility, and non-allergenicity were determined. Then, the physicochemical characteristics of the constructed vaccine candidates were analyzed, and also the tertiary structure of the vaccines was anticipated, which was later verified and refined. Molecular docking and molecular dynamics simulation results showed that the V1 vaccine constructs expected affinity and binding free energy for the dimeric state of human Toll-like receptor-4 (hTLR-4) were promising. These results indicate that the suggested vaccine candidate could probably enhance the immune response to Onchocerca lupi infection. The results should be confirmed in experimental studies.

Medical Aspect of Tobacco Smoke's Adverse Effects on Human Health

According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, there is an annual rate of 7 million deaths because of tobacco use, and this rate is expected to step up to 8 million deaths in 2030 by virtue of smoking-related health complications. Furthermore, it is pathetic to know that almost more than 23% of high school students use tobacco, which if continued at the current rate; about 5.6 million teenagers would be vulnerable to death as mentioned by the World Health Organization. On the other hand, smokers do not only harm themselves but also increase the incidence of pneumonia, asthma, and bronchitis for passive smokers, which by the way contribute to the development of lung cancer and cardiovascular diseases. Moreover, infant death syndrome and slow-growing lung cancer are prevalent in children with continuous exposure to second-hand smoke. These adverse effects emerge from the complex mixture of chemicals present in submicron-sized particles suspended in cigarette smoke like carbon monoxide, benzene, nitrogen oxides, and other gases. Thus, it seems that tobacco smoking has been spreading worldwide as an epidemic with devastating lethal disorders represented in diverse pulmonary, neurological, and cardiovascular-related diseases. Wherefore, this paper discusses the harmful effects of tobacco smoke on human health in accordance with the modern advanced genetic technologies used in exploratory investigations for the relation between smoking and the emergence of human diseases.

Intensive animal production as driver of biodiversity loss and pandemics

Abstract Pandemics have their origin in diverse microbes carried by animal hosts, but their emergence is entirely driven by human activities. These include deforestation, land- and sea-use change, agricultural expansion and intensification, and wildlife trade and consumption. These activities bring wildlife, livestock, and people into closer contact, allowing animal microbes to spillover into people and causing infections, sometimes outbreaks, and more rarely epidemics and pandemics. Domestic animals and peri-domestic wildlife also have a role in creating bridges for the emergence of human diseases, since this can happen in an evolutionary sense, or the animal could serve as a physical transmitter. The most important reservoirs of pathogens with pandemic potential are mammals (in particular bats, rodents and primates) and some birds, as well as livestock (e.g. pigs, mink, poultry). In fact, intensive animal production is also considered one of the drivers for biodiversity loss and potentially for future pandemics. As an example, intensive poultry farming not only poses a significant risk to workers, but can also act as a potential public health menace evidencing the One health approach to tackle all the menaces in this particular setting.

Physical and Optical Properties of N,S-Codoped Carbon Quantum Dots Derived from Cigarette Butts for Mercury Ions Detection

The accumulation of mercury metal ion (Hg2+) in polluted river water is a problem in the emergence of various diseases in humans, because it is accumulated in drinks and food eaten every day. Therefore, the development of an accurate, sensitive, efficient and convenient method is very important to detect the content of metal mercury ions in polluted water. In this study, Carbon Quantum Dots (CQDs) was made simultaneously doped with Nitrogen (N) and Sulphur (S) atoms, so called N,-S codoped CQDs for the application of mercury metal ion sensors in polluted water. CQDs were prepared from wasted cigarette butts, which contain cellulose acetate as a source of carbon and nicotine as N-atoms source. The preparation of carbon solutions precursors were made by two ways of treatments namely put wasted cigarette filters/butts with water for 6-12 months (precursor I) and atomic S doping was done by adding sulfuric acid (H2SO4) with a volume-percentage of 0, 10% and 20% in water. The second treatment was carried out through the washing of wasted cigarette filter with sulfuric acid solution with a volume percentage of 20% sulfuric acid in water (precursor II). CQDs were prepared by use of hydrothermal method at 180°C for 6 hours. The synthesized solution was neutralized with sodium carbonate (Na2CO3). The solution was then centrifuged at 10,000 rpm for 15 minutes and filtered with a 0.22 µm microsyringe filter. The result of solution is a transparent and turns into blue when irradiated by a 365 nm UV laser, which indicates that CQDs has been formed. The FTIR results of the CQDs solution without S doping showed the presence of groups containing N atoms, namely at wave numbers 1417 cm-1 (C–N), 1540 cm-1 (CON–H), 1650 cm-1 (C=N/C=O). This means that N-doped CQDs have been formed. The C–S functional group was identified at a wave number of 1361 cm-1 in the S atom-doped CQDs. The HR-TEM images showed that the CQDs had a size less than 10 nm, and the distance between graphene crystals plane is in the range of 0.22-0.28 nm. The absorption spectra of the CQDs are ranging from 200 nm to 350 nm. S atom doping does not affect the absorbance spectrum significantly. The CQDs without S-atom doping has a PL spectrum from 300 nm to 800 nm with an emission peak of 417 nm. While, the N,-S codoped CQDs have a PL emission peak at 404 nm. The addition of doping from 10% to 20% did not change the peak emission wavelength. The CQDs sizes, optical properties and FTIR spectra of N, S-codoped CQDs show no significant difference when were prepared from precursor I and precursor II. This shows that the preparation of N, S co-doped CQDs can be produced much faster by washing cigarette butts directly with sulfuric acid prior to hydrothermal process as compared to precursor I which needs 6-12 months.

Emerging Animal-Associated Fungal Diseases.

The Global Action Fund for Fungal Infections (GAFFI) estimates that fungal diseases kill around 150 people each hour, and yet they are globally overlooked and neglected. Histoplasma and Talaromyces, which are associated with wildlife, cause systemic infections that are often lethal in patients with impaired cellular immunity. Dermatophytes that cause outbreaks in human hosts are often associated with domesticated animals. Changes in human behavior have been identified as a main cause of the emergence of animal-associated fungal diseases in humans, sometimes caused by the disturbance of natural habitats. An understanding of ecology and the transmission modes of causative agents is therefore essential. Here, we focus on fungal diseases contracted from wildlife and domesticated animals, their habitats, feces and carcasses. We discuss some basic fungal lifestyles and the risk of transmission to humans and illustrate these with examples from emerging and established diseases.

Quantification of adaptive forces on SNP rs1010211 due to viral zoonotic pathogens

Widespread genotyping of human populations in environmental homeostasis has created opportunities to quantify how environmental parameters affect the genomic distribution of variants in healthy populations. This represents an ongoing natural experiment upon the human species that can only be understood through developing models of adaptation. By examining the information dynamics of optimal SNP distributions within such populations, “adaptive forces” on genomic variants can be quantified through comparisons between different populations. To this end, we are performing double-blind scans of SNPs in order to ascertain any potential smooth functional relationships between the frequencies of the variants and changes in quantified environmental parameters. At present, we have sequentially examined more than twenty thousand SNPs (on chromosome 3) of nine homeostatic native populations for potential adaptive flagging of the variants as functions of 15 environmental parameters. Our first significant flag has related rs1010211 to viral pathogens in mammalian hosts. Such pathogens present a significant risk for the emergence of new infectious diseases in humans. This genomic variant is within the gene TNIK, which is a germinal center kinase (GCK). GCKs are participants in both adaptive and innate immune regulation. However, the function of TNIK is not fully understood. We quantify the adaptive force on the C allele due to the pathogens as 0.04 GEU’s/viral species.

Clostridioides difficile infection and One Health: an equine perspective.

Summary Clostridioides (Clostridium) difficile presents a significant health risk to humans and animals. The complexity of the bacterial–host interaction affecting pathogenesis and disease development creates an ongoing challenge for epidemiological studies, control strategies and prevention planning. The recent emergence of human disease caused by strains of C. difficile found in animals adds to mounting evidence that C. difficile infection (CDI) may be a zoonosis. In equine populations, C. difficile is a known cause of diarrhoea and gastrointestinal inflammation, with considerable mortality and morbidity. This has a significant impact on both the well‐being of the animal and, in the case of performance and production animals, it may have an adverse economic impact on relevant industries. While C. difficile is regularly isolated from horses, many questions remain regarding the impact of asymptomatic carriage as well as optimization of diagnosis, testing and treatment. This review provides an overview of our understanding of equine CDI while also identifying knowledge gaps and the need for a holistic One Health approach to a complicated issue.

Zoonotic Blood-Borne Pathogens in Non-Human Primates in the Neotropical Region: A Systematic Review.

Background: Understanding which non-human primates (NHPs) act as a wild reservoir for blood-borne pathogens will allow us to better understand the ecology of diseases and the role of NHPs in the emergence of human diseases in Ecuador, a small country in South America that lacks information on most of these pathogens. Methods and principal findings: A systematic review was carried out using PRISMA guidelines from 1927 until 2019 about blood-borne pathogens present in NHPs of the Neotropical region (i.e., South America and Middle America). Results: A total of 127 publications were found in several databases. We found in 25 genera (132 species) of NHPs a total of 56 blood-borne pathogens in 197 records where Protozoa has the highest number of records in neotropical NHPs (n = 128) compared to bacteria (n = 12) and viruses (n = 57). Plasmodium brasilianum and Trypanosoma cruzi are the most recorded protozoa in NHP. The neotropical primate genus with the highest number of blood-borne pathogens recorded is Alouatta sp. (n = 32). The use of non-invasive samples for neotropical NHPs remains poor in a group where several species are endangered or threatened. A combination of serological and molecular techniques is common when detecting blood-borne pathogens. Socioecological and ecological risk factors facilitate the transmission of these parasites. Finally, a large number of countries remain unsurveyed, such as Ecuador, which can be of public health importance. Conclusions and significance: NHPs are potential reservoirs of a large number of blood-borne pathogens. In Ecuador, research activities should be focused on bacteria and viruses, where there is a gap of information for neotropical NHPs, in order to implement surveillance programs with regular and effective monitoring protocols adapted to NHPs.

A novel computational framework for genome-scale alternative transcription units prediction

Alternative transcription units (ATUs) are dynamically encoded under different conditions and display overlapping patterns (sharing one or more genes) under a specific condition in bacterial genomes. Genome-scale identification of ATUs is essential for studying the emergence of human diseases caused by bacterial organisms. However, it is unrealistic to identify all ATUs using experimental techniques because of the complexity and dynamic nature of ATUs. Here, we present the first-of-its-kind computational framework, named SeqATU, for genome-scale ATU prediction based on next-generation RNA-Seq data. The framework utilizes a convex quadratic programming model to seek an optimum expression combination of all of the to-be-identified ATUs. The predicted ATUs in Escherichia coli reached a precision of 0.77/0.74 and a recall of 0.75/0.76 in the two RNA-Sequencing datasets compared with the benchmarked ATUs from third-generation RNA-Seq data. In addition, the proportion of 5'- or 3'-end genes of the predicted ATUs, having documented transcription factor binding sites and transcription termination sites, was three times greater than that of no 5'- or 3'-end genes. We further evaluated the predicted ATUs by Gene Ontology and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes functional enrichment analyses. The results suggested that gene pairs frequently encoded in the same ATUs are more functionally related than those that can belong to two distinct ATUs. Overall, these results demonstrated the high reliability of predicted ATUs. We expect that the new insights derived by SeqATU will not only improve the understanding of the transcription mechanism of bacteria but also guide the reconstruction of a genome-scale transcriptional regulatory network.

UPDATED PREPARATION FRAMEWORK AND RESPONSE TO A PANDEMIC FLU

Planning and reacting to a number of possible consequences following the emergence of a new influenza A virus is complex. These viruses can spread rapidly and explosively throughout the world, as in the influenza pandemics of 1918, 1957, 1968 and 2009 [1,2]; causes limited outbreaks, such as influenza A (H3N2) (H3N2v) in the United States associated with agricultural fairs in the summer months of 2011, 2012 and 2013 [3]; or continues to cause limited human-to-human transmission of the virus, such as influenza A (H5N1) and influenza A (H7N9) virus in Asia [4,5]. Moreover, new influenza A viruses, even when transmitted in a closed environment, do not always lead to a pandemic, such as the 1976 influenza A (H1N1) outbreak in Fort Dix, New Jersey and the 2011 H3N2v outbreak. 2013 in the United States [3,6]. Identifying and responding to this wide range of situations requires systematic frameworks that describe the evolution of events; weigh the risk of the new virus and the potential impact on public health; assesses the potential for transmissibility, antiviral resistance and disease severity; and can be used to develop sensible timely decisions about interventions (e.g., community mitigation measures, medical countermeasures, and vaccines). Training and response frameworks provide a common basis for planning in different jurisdictions and ensure the transparency of decisions and actions taken. Significant progress has been made in developing pandemic plans, as well as preparedness and response frameworks over the past decade. The efforts of the World Health Organization (WHO), the CDC, other US government agencies, and state and local jurisdictions have addressed pandemic preparedness planning. Lessons learned from gaps in US influence decision-making frameworks became apparent with each event and exercise [7]. The recent emergence of human disease caused by H3N2v in the United States [3] and H7N9 in China [5] has demonstrated the need to align existing documents and frameworks into a useful tool that can be used to guide planning and response efforts. Keywords: Pandemic, preparedness, setting and response, influenza Normal 0 false false false EN-US X-NONE X-NONE /* Style Definitions */ table.MsoNormalTable {mso-style-name:Table Normal; mso-tstyle-rowband-size:0; mso-tstyle-colband-size:0; mso-style-noshow:yes; mso-style-priority:99; mso-style-parent:; mso-padding-alt:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; mso-para-margin-top:0cm; mso-para-margin-right:0cm; mso-para-margin-bottom:8.0pt; mso-para-margin-left:0cm; line-height:107%; mso-pagination:widow-orphan; font-size:11.0pt; font-family:Calibri,sans-serif; mso-ascii-font-family:Calibri; mso-ascii-theme-font:minor-latin; mso-hansi-font-family:Calibri; mso-hansi-theme-font:minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family:Times New Roman; mso-bidi-theme-font:minor-bidi; mso-ansi-language:EN-US; mso-fareast-language:EN-US;}

Major zoonotic diseases of public health importance in Bangladesh

Zoonotic diseases cause repeated outbreaks in humans globally. The majority of emerging infections in humans are zoonotic. COVID‐19 is an ideal example of a recently identified emerging zoonotic disease, causing a global pandemic. Anthropogenic factors such as modernisation of agriculture and livestock farming, wildlife hunting, the destruction of wild animal habitats, mixing wild and domestic animals, wildlife trading, changing food habits and urbanisation could drive the emergence of zoonotic diseases in humans. Since 2001, Bangladesh has been reporting many emerging zoonotic disease outbreaks such as nipah, highly pathogenic avian influenza, pandemic H1N1, and COVID‐19. There are many other potential zoonotic pathogens such as Ebola, Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus, Kyasanur forest disease virus and Crimean–Congo haemorrhagic fever that may emerge in the future. However, we have a limited understanding of zoonotic diseases’ overall risk in humans and associated factors that drive the emergence of zoonotic pathogens. This narrative review summarised the major emerging, re‐emerging, neglected and other potential zoonotic diseases in Bangladesh and their associated risk factors. Nipah virus and Bacillus anthracis caused repeated outbreaks in humans. More than 300 human cases with Nipah virus infection were reported since the first outbreak in 2001. The highly pathogenic avian influenza virus (H5N1) caused more than 550 outbreaks in poultry, and eight human cases were reported so far since 2007. People of Bangladesh are frequently exposed to zoonotic pathogens due to close interaction with domestic and peri‐domestic animals. The rapidly changing intensified animal–human–ecosystem interfaces and risky practices increase the risk of zoonotic disease transmission. The narrative review's findings are useful to draw attention to the risk and emergence of zoonotic diseases to public health policymakers in Bangladesh and the application of one‐health approach to address this public health threat.

Population bottlenecks and founder effects: implications for mosquito-borne arboviral emergence.

Transmission of arthropod-borne viruses (arboviruses) involves infection and replication in both arthropod vectors and vertebrate hosts. Nearly all arboviruses are RNA viruses with high mutation frequencies, which leaves them vulnerable to genetic drift and fitness losses owing to population bottlenecks during vector infection, dissemination from the midgut to the salivary glands and transmission to the vertebrate host. However, despite these bottlenecks, they seem to avoid fitness declines that can result from Muller’s ratchet. In addition, founder effects that occur during the geographic introductions of human-amplified arboviruses, including chikungunya virus and Zika virus, can affect epidemic and endemic circulation, as well as virulence. In this Review, we discuss the role of genetic drift following population bottlenecks and founder effects in arboviral evolution and spread, and the emergence of human disease.

Towards a coordinated strategy for intercepting human disease emergence in Africa

Emerging zoonotic viruses are one of the greatest threats to human health and security, as evidenced by the increasing frequency of disease outbreaks.1 To date, the main pre-emptive response to these outbreaks has been extensive, cost-heavy efforts to document virus diversity in wildlife (eg, PREDICT and the Global Virome Projects).2,3 Although these efforts have resulted in the identification of thousands of novel viruses, fewer than 1% are described to date, substantial challenges remain around access and benefit sharing from viral discovery programmes, and—perhaps most problematic for public health application—the spillover hazard of these viruses can only be coarsely inferred at present.

Wild horses and horse manure as reservoirs for Clostridiodes difficile in Australia

Background: Clostridiodes (Clostridium) difficile poses an ongoing threat as a cause of diarrhoea in both human and animal populations. Recent emergence of human disease caused by strains of C. difficile found in animals adds to mounting evidence that C. difficile infection (CDI) is a zoonosis. In Australia, horses represent a unique mix of companion and wild animals. While C. difficile is regularly isolated from domesticated horses, little is known about C. difficile in wild horses, known as brumbies in Australia. The aim of this study was to investigate the prevalence and characteristics of C. difficile in wild horse populations, and in publicly available horse manure to evaluate its potential as a source of C. difficile in the community. Methods and materials: One hundred and twenty-six wild horse faecal samples were collected from Western and South-Eastern Australia and 60 publicly available horse manure samples were collected from Western Australian metropolitan areas. Samples were cultured in enrichment broth followed by alcohol shock and subsequent plating onto differential agar. C. difficile isolates were characterised by ribotyping using capillary electrophoresis, and toxin profiling by PCR. Results: The overall C. difficile prevalence was 15.1% in wild horses and 31.7% in publicly available horse manure, a statistically significant difference (P = 0.048). Thirty-one ribotypes (RTs) were identified across all samples; the most prevalent were RTs 0.10 (a non-toxigenic strain), 0.54, 0.56 and 0.15. These RTs have been previously isolated from vegetables, livestock and humans in WA. Two additional noteworthy isolates included an esculin hydrolysis negative strain and a non-toxigenic RT078 strain. Conclusion: This study is the first known investigation into C. difficile in wild horse populations and the first to look specifically at C. difficile in horse manure available for public use. Prevalence of C. difficile was higher than previously reported in horses, and some unusual strains that require further investigation were isolated. The study provides preliminary information on the epidemiology of C. difficile in wild horses and support the hypothesis that horse manure represents a potential reservoir of C. difficile in the community.