Embedded-processes Model Research Articles

Can metacognitive accuracy be altered through prompting in biology text reading?

Metacognitive accuracy is understood as the congruency of subjective evaluation and objectively measured learning performance. With reference to the cue utilisation framework and the embedded-processes model of working memory, we proposed that prompts impact attentional processes during learning. Through guided prompting, learners place their attention on specific information during the learning process. We assumed that the information will be taken into account when comprehension judgments are formed. Subsequently, metacognitive accuracy will be altered. Based on the results of this online study with pre-service biology teachers, we can neither confirm nor reject our main hypothesis and assume small effects of prompting on metacognitive accuracy if there are any. Learning performance and judgment of comprehension were not found to be impacted by the use of resource- and deficit-oriented prompting. Other measurements of self-evaluation (i.e. satisfaction with learning outcome and prediction about prolonged comprehension) were not influenced through prompting. The study provides merely tentative evidence for altered metacognitive accuracy and effects on information processing through prompting. Results are discussed in light of online learning settings in which the effectiveness of prompt implementation might have been restricted compared to a classroom environment. We provide recommendations for the use of prompts in learning settings with the aim to facilitate their effectiveness, so that both resource-oriented and deficit-oriented prompts can contribute to metacognitive skill development if they are applied appropriately.

Rhythms of human attention and memory: An embedded process perspective.

It remains a dogma in cognitive neuroscience to separate human attention and memory into distinct modules and processes. Here we propose that brain rhythms reflect the embedded nature of these processes in the human brain, as evident from their shared neural signatures: gamma oscillations (30–90 Hz) reflect sensory information processing and activated neural representations (memory items). The theta rhythm (3–8 Hz) is a pacemaker of explicit control processes (central executive), structuring neural information processing, bit by bit, as reflected in the theta-gamma code. By representing memory items in a sequential and time-compressed manner the theta-gamma code is hypothesized to solve key problems of neural computation: (1) attentional sampling (integrating and segregating information processing), (2) mnemonic updating (implementing Hebbian learning), and (3) predictive coding (advancing information processing ahead of the real time to guide behavior). In this framework, reduced alpha oscillations (8–14 Hz) reflect activated semantic networks, involved in both explicit and implicit mnemonic processes. Linking recent theoretical accounts and empirical insights on neural rhythms to the embedded-process model advances our understanding of the integrated nature of attention and memory – as the bedrock of human cognition.

Working Memory from the Perspective of the Multicomponent Model and Embedded-Processes Model

In this article, we focus on working memory, the ability to store and actively manipulate information for a short period of time, and present two prominent theoretical frameworks for its study: Baddeley and Hitch's multicomponent model of working memory and Cowan's embedded-processes model. The multicomponent model assumes modality specific slave components for temporary storage and rehearsal of information and a central executive component that controls the entire system and determines what information enters and leaves the stores. The embedded-processes model, on the other hand, gives a more general description of the working memory system by focusing on its processes. It assumes that attention allocated to representations stored in the long-term memory underlies the short-term maintenance of information. We further describe in more detail how models conceptualize and define working memory, its components, and the processes involved, as well as factors in limiting its capacity. Finally, we describe similarities and differences between the models and present how the components of the models can be mapped to one another and to the brain systems.

Time of presentation affects auditory distraction: Changing-state and deviant sounds disrupt similar working memory processes.

Four experiments tested conflicting predictions about which components of the serial-recall task are most sensitive to auditory distraction. Changing-state (Experiments 1a and 1b) and deviant distractor sounds (Experiments 2a and 2b) were presented in one of four different intervals of the serial-recall task: (1) during the first half of encoding, (2) during the second half of encoding, (3) during the first half of retention, or (4) during the second half of retention. According to the embedded-processes model, both types of distractors should interfere with the encoding and rehearsal of targets in the focus of attention. According to the duplex-mechanism account, changing-state distractors should interfere only with rehearsal, whereas deviant distractors should interfere only with encoding. Inconsistent with the latter view, changing-state and deviant distractor sounds interfered with both the encoding and the retention of the targets. Both types of auditory distraction were most pronounced during the second half of encoding when the increasing rehearsal demands had to be coordinated with the continuous updating of the rehearsal set. These findings suggest that the two types of distraction disrupt similar working memory mechanisms.

Comparison of Three Models Dealing with Working Memory and Its Dimensions in Second Language Acquisition

The current status of research on working memory (WM) and its components in second language acquisition (SLA) was examined in this review. Literature search was done on four aspects using search terms in Google Scholar. Hence, the review results are given and introduced. 1. In the definition of WM, some confusion exists on whether short term memory (STM) or recent memory is the same as WM or different. 2. In this review, three main models have been discussed elaborately, as they are the only ones discussed in literature. They are: multicomponent model of Baddeley (2000), embedded process model of Cowan (2005) and attention control model of Engle and Kane (2003). 3. The phonological and executive components of WM were examined in more detail, as these determine the two basic aspects of language acquisition: language characteristics and acquisition methods (Wen, 2012). Overall, the variables related to phonological and executive working memories are evident from published research, but their interactive relationships and affecting factors are not entirely clear. 4. Admittedly, several diverse internal and external factors affect WM in relation to SLA. Some practically useful interventions are indicated by certain findings.

Meta-analysis of the research impact of Baddeley’s multicomponent working memory model and Cowan’s embedded-processes model of working memory: A bibliometric mapping approach

Abstract In this study bibliometric mapping method was employed to visualise the current research trends and the impact of the two most influential models of working memory, namely: A. D. Baddeley and G. J. Hitch’s (1974) multicomponent working memory model and N. Cowan’s (1988) embedded-processes model of working memory. Using VOSviewer software two maps were generated based on the index-term words extracted from the research papers citing Baddeley (2000) and Cowan (2001), respectively. The maps represent networks of co-occurrences of index terms and can be interpreted as an indication of the main research fields related to the examined models of WM. The results of the analysis revealed that the spheres of influence of the two main conceptualisations of WM are rather different than similar. Although the first two clusters, i.e. “brain mapping” and “higher-level cognition and development” are present in both maps, their relative importance varies. The remaining clusters are unique to each map. Baddeley’s theory seems to have a greater influence on “neuropsychology”, while Cowan’s theory - on basic research on “biological systems”, including the nervous system in humans and animals. The second difference between these theories concerns their relations to functions and dysfunctions associated with particular sensory modalities: in Baddelay’s theory with the “auditory modality” cluster, and in Cowan’s - with the “visual modality” one.

Domain specificity in orthographic long-term and working memory

Domain specificity in orthographic long-term and working memory

Attention and Long-Term Memory in System and Process Theories of Working Memory: A Reply to Soemer’s (2015) Comment on Schweppe and Rummer (2014)

Recently, Soemer (2015) criticized our theoretical review paper published in this journal (Schweppe and Rummer 2014). In our article, we argued for a new perspective on (working) memory within theories of multimedia learning. Our main idea was that a theory that focuses on interactions between attention and long-term memory (as does Cowan’s 1999, embedded-processes model) provides a more unitary account of the multi-faceted principles associated with working memory in multimedia research than those models currently incorporated in multimedia theories. Even though many of the recommendations for how to design multimedia learning materials relate to reducing cognitive load in working memory, they refer to attention and long-term memory at least as much. Our article had two core messages: (1) Based on a description of the multicomponent model of working memory (e.g., Baddeley 2000; Baddeley & Hitch 1974) and how it is adapted in theories of multimedia learning, we concluded that the most important principles for multimedia learning are neither clearly attributable to the basic model (i.e., the multicomponent model) nor to the applied models (i.e., the cognitive theory of multimedia learning, e.g., Mayer 2009, and the cognitive load theory, e.g., Sweller 1999). (2) As an alternative, we suggested incorporating a different model that conceives of working memory as the interplay of attentional processes and long-term memory and thus allows for explaining principles related to attention, working memory, and long-term memory in a unitary manner (i.e., the embeddedprocesses model by Cowan 1999). Soemer’s (2015) comment mainly concerned our description of the multicomponent model of working memory. More specifically, he criticized that, unlike suggested in our article, the current version of the multicomponent model of working memory (Baddeley 2000, and later) does not postulate structurally independent working and long-term memory systems but rather Educ Psychol Rev (2016) 28:201–204 DOI 10.1007/s10648-015-9336-0

The Multicomponent Working Memory Model, Attention, and Long-term Memory in Multimedia Learning: A Comment on Schweppe and Rummer (2014)

Multimedia learning theories rely on findings from different areas of fundamental psychological research. Working memory is undoubtedly a particularly important concept for these theories. However, the application of findings from fundamental research to multimedia learning is not as straightforward as it might seem at first glance, and misinterpretations are pervasive in the literature. The recent article of Schweppe and Rummer (2014) represents an important contribution in this respect. Their paper outlines assumptions in Baddeley and Hitch’s (1974) multicomponent working model and discusses the implementation of these assumptions in popular multimedia learning theories such as the cognitive theory of multimedia learning (CTML; Mayer 2009) and cognitive load theory (CLT; Sweller et al. 2011). The authors then continue arguing that the multicomponent model conceives working memory as structurally separate from long-term memory, and that this assumed separation has drawbacks with regard to explaining a number of effects in multimedia studies. As an alternative foundation for multimedia learning theories, they propose Cowan’s (1999) embedded-processes model. While this effort should be highly valued, the present commentary argues (a) that Schweppe and Rummer’s rejection of the multicomponent model as a basis for multimedia theories is based on a misinterpretation of the relationship between working memory and long-term memory in the multicomponent model, (b) that the multicomponent model and the embeddedprocesses model can be seen as complementary approaches, and (c) that a complete theory of multimedia learning needs to fully integrate both central executive (i.e., attentional) and functionally specialized (e.g., phonological and visuospatial) mechanisms.

Reconceptualizing Working Memory in Educational Research

In recent years, research from cognitive science has provided a solid theoretical framework to develop evidence-based interventions in education. In particular, research into reading, writing, language, mathematics and multimedia learning has been guided by the application of Baddeley’s multicomponent model of working memory. However, an over-reliance on this single perspective has overlooked the theoretical diversity of contemporary research into working memory. We review the successes and shortcomings of applying Baddeley’s model in accounting for a range of evidence and draw attention to alternative models that have been largely ignored within educational research. Specifically, we evaluate frameworks of working memory provided by Kane, Engle and colleagues (attentional control model) and Cowan (embedded process model). We conclude that these alternative views can support a reconceptualization of the contributions of working memory to academic learning that may not be afforded by interpretations of the prevailing multicomponent model.

Attention, Working Memory, and Long-Term Memory in Multimedia Learning: An Integrated Perspective Based on Process Models of Working Memory

Cognitive models of multimedia learning such as the Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning (Mayer 2009) or the Cognitive Load Theory (Sweller 1999) are based on different cognitive models of working memory (e.g., Baddeley 1986) and long-term memory. The current paper describes a working memory model that has recently gained popularity in basic research: the embedded-processes model (Cowan 1999). The embedded-processes model argues that working memory is not a separate cognitive system but is the activated part of long-term memory. A subset of activated long-term memory is assumed to be particularly highlighted and is termed the “focus of attention.” This model thus integrates working memory, long-term memory, and (voluntary and involuntary) attention, and referring to it within multimedia models provides the opportunity to model all these learning-relevant cognitive processes and systems in a unitary way. We make suggestions for incorporating this model into theories of multimedia learning. On this basis, one cannot only reinterpret crucial phenomena in multimedia learning that are attributed to working memory (the split-attention effect, the modality effect, the coherence effect, the signaling effect, the redundancy effect, and the expertise reversal effect) but also derive new predictions.

Habituation of the irrelevant sound effect: Evidence for an attentional theory of short-term memory disruption.

Immediate serial recall is seriously disrupted by to-be-ignored sound. According to the embedded-processes model, auditory distractors elicit attentional orienting that draws processing resources away from the recall task. The model predicts that interference should be attenuated after repeated exposure to the auditory distractors. Previous failures to observe evidence for habituation can be explained by assuming that habituation to complex distractor features depends on the availability of working memory resources. Here we demonstrate that the irrelevant sound effect is attenuated after passive listening to the auditory distractors during a preexposure phase prior to the serial recall task. Experiment 1 shows that the irrelevant sound effect is abolished after 20 min of passive listening to the distractor speech. Experiments 2-4 show that irrelevant sound interference is significantly reduced after listening to distractors for 45 s. As predicted by the habituation hypothesis, an attenuation of interference occurs only when the distractor material matches the material played in the preexposure phase (Experiment 5). The results support an attentional conceptualization of the irrelevant sound effect.

Disruption of short-term memory by distractor speech: Does content matter?

Four experiments replicate the finding that auditory distractors that are lexically identical to the visual target items dramatically increase the irrelevant-speech effect on serial recall. This effect was previously attributed to interference of incompatible order cues. The present results suggest that a different interpretation of this effect is required. Experiment 2 replicates the order congruence effect observed by Hughes and Jones (2005), but shows that this effect is most likely due to an attenuation of interference that is caused by strategic attention shifts to the nominally irrelevant material. Experiments 3 and 4 show that the between-stream similarity effect generalizes to a condition in which the distractor items were drawn from the same category as the targets, but were not identical to them. By showing that nonacoustic distractor features can increase interference in serial recall of lists of supposedly "meaningless" items such as digits or consonants, the results are most consistent with models that postulate an integration of short-term and long-term memory such as the embedded-processes model and the feature model and are inconsistent with classical structural accounts of memory.

On the division of working memory and long-term memory and their relation to intelligence: A latent variable approach

The present study examined the extent to which working (WM) and long-term memory (LTM) reflect the same, related, or completely different constructs and how they relate to other cognitive ability constructs. Participants performed various WM, recall, recognition, general fluid (gF) and general crystallized intelligence (gC) measures. Confirmatory factor analyses suggested that the memory measures could be grouped into three separate yet correlated factors (WM, recall, and recognition) and that these factors were strongly related to gF, but were related less so with gC. Furthermore, it was found that the common variance from the three memory factors could be accounted for by a higher-order memory factor which was strongly related to gF, but less so with gC. Finally, structural equation modeling suggested that both the variance common to the WM tasks and the variance common to all the memory tasks accounted for a unique variance in gF. These results are interpreted within an embedded process model of memory and suggest that WM and LTM tasks measure both shared and unique processes, which are important for intelligence.

Using neuroimaging to evaluate models of working memory and their implications for language processing

The precise relationships that exist between verbal working memory and language processing remain underdetermined. We argue that while neuroimaging methods have the potential to provide important insights into the links between these two cognitive domains, an over-reliance on a single theoretical perspective has stunted progress toward this end. Specifically, neuroimaging studies in the domain of working memory have relied heavily on the theoretical framework provided by Baddeley's Multiple-Component Model. We reexamine the sufficiency of this model in accounting for a range of neuroimaging evidence, and draw attention to a set of findings that are not readily explained by a conventional mapping of this model onto specific neuroanatomical substrates. An alternative framework provided by Cowan's Embedded-Processes Model is then evaluated, and we conclude that this alternative view supports a reconceptualization of the contributions of Broca's area and the left inferior parietal cortex to working memory that can account for a wide range of findings. Importantly, this alternative account suggests links between working memory and language that are not afforded by currently prevailing interpretations.