Embalming Techniques Research Articles

A survey on practices of embalming techniques and usage of soft embalming methods in Indian medical institutes

BackgroundSoft cadavers are becoming increasingly popular for surgical skills development in competency-based medical education curricula. However, few studies evaluate this strategy's viability, dependability, and validity, particularly in India. This study intends to investigate embalming procedures and procedural skills practices at medical institutions. MethodsA validated questionnaire gathered information on demographic details, embalming practices, surgical skill training, willingness to adopt modern embalming techniques and awareness and practice of soft embalming methods. A total of 350 Indian medical institutions were forwarded the questionnaire via email. Responses were analyzed using SPSS version 16, and the Chi-square test was used to examine the association between the two categorical variables. ResultsA study of 350 Indian medical institutions found a 62% response rate. In the studied population, 53.5% (N = 116) of institutes demonstrated procedural skills in undergraduate education as a part of early clinical experience. A total of 54.4% (N = 118) of institutes conducted hands-on surgical training. For postgraduates in surgical departments, voluntary cadaver dissection was offered at 53.9% (N = 117) of institutes. In 78.3% (N = 170) of the institutes, surgical training was performed on formaldehyde-embalmed cadavers. Institutions used proprietary solutions, fresh frozen approaches, Thiel solution, phenol, and saturated salt solutions for embalming. ConclusionThe study highlights disparities in undergraduate teaching and surgical skill training in medical institutes, emphasizing the need for re-evaluating embalming practices to ensure the safety and educational quality. It also highlights underutilization of soft embalming methods, highlighting need for improved training programs and strategies to enhance medical education quality.

Thiel embalming method used for anatomy dissection as an educational tool in teaching human anatomy, in research, and in training in comparison of different methods for long term preservation.

The use of human cadavers is beneficial in teaching gross human anatomy, training, and development in medicine. Fresh-frozen cadavers initially exhibit natural colour, tenderness, and flexibility. They also present innumerable difficulties, including the requirement of freezers for storage and a few weeks' work time because of fast decay. The risk of infection is also significant. A possible choice for fresh-frozen cadavers is embalmed cadavers. The requested characteristic needed for successful embalming is acceptable long-term structural preservation of organs and tissues with minimal deformity and prevention of outward aspects. Scientists are trying to develop an ideal embalming solution to preserve the human body. Such a solution renders the flexibility of internal organs, preventing dryness, and reducing fungal or bacterial growth. Cadavers should be in a condition comparable to that of an unembalmed cadaver, and the chemicals used in the solution should not be harmful to persons during manipulation. The promising results have been obtained by the use of different embalming techniques by many faculties of medicine as a tool to enhance the teaching of anatomy to students.

Undergraduate medical student perceptions and learning outcomes related to anatomy training using Thiel- and ethanol-glycerin-embalmed tissues.

Anatomical dissection is known to serve as an integral tool in teaching gross anatomy, including postgraduate training. A variety of embalming techniques exist, resulting in different haptic and optical tissue properties. This study aimed to objectify learning outcomes and medical student perceptions related to the use of two widely used embalming techniques, namely Thiel and ethanol-glycerin embalming. Between 2020 and 2022, first- and second-year medical students enrolled in the course on topographic anatomy participated in this study. Objective structured practical examinations were carried out for the head, neck, thorax, abdomen, pelvis, and extremity regions following regional dissection just before the oral examinations began. Six to ten numbered tags were marked in prosections of each region in Thiel- and ethanol-glycerin-embalmed specimens. Following the examinations, the students were surveyed regarding the suitability of the two embalming techniques with respect to preservation, colorfastness, tissue pliability, and the suitability in preparing for their anatomy examinations. Consistently higher scores were achieved for the thoracic and abdominal regions in ethanol-glycerin-embalmed specimens when compared to Thiel. No benefit was found for Thiel-embalmed upper or lower extremities. Tissues embalmed with ethanol-glycerin were rated higher for preservation and suitability to achieve the learning objectives, tissue pliability was rated higher for Thiel-embalmed tissues. Ethanol-glycerin embalming appears to offer certain advantages for undergraduate students in recognizing visceral structures, which may align with students' ideas on tissue suitability for their learning. Consequently, the benefits reported for Thiel embalming for postgraduate study unlikely reflect its suitability for novices.

Modern Method of Commercial Embalming of Poisoned Decomposing Carcasses in Nigeria

Certain poisons speed-up the rate of decomposition of carcasses, and this has become a cause of concern to embalmers because of the difficulty in embalming such carcasses. Therefore, a suitable modern embalming method has been discussed in this study in order to abate, slow and even halt further decomposition of bodies as a result of poisoning. The study was carried out to validate the effectiveness of an embalming mixture containing formalin, methanol and water on early decomposing poisoned bodies. Four domestic pigs (Sus scrofa domestica) were used for this experiment. Animals were sacrificed and allowed to reach the early stage of decomposition before embalmment. Arterial embalming technique was employed which was supplemented by hypodermic embalming technique. A Pearson correlation analysis was used to determine the relationship between the outcome of embalming and the independent variables such as volume of embalming fluid, humidity, room temperature, atmospheric temperature, and duration of embalming. The visible post embalming changes showed that decomposition was arrested on the eighth day, which was followed by mummification of the animals. The Pearson correlation analysis showed a statistically significant strong positive correlation between outcome of embalming and duration of embalming; a statistically significant moderate negative correlation with volume of embalming fluid; and a statistically significant moderate negative correlation with room temperature. An embalming mixture containing formalin, methanol and water in equal proportion is suitable for arresting early decomposition of poisoned bodies using arterial and hypodermic embalming techniques.

Efficacy of Embalming Mixture Containing Formalin, Methanol and Water on Early Stage of Decomposition: A Validation Study

Background: Stabbing with kitchen knife is a common method of homicide in Nigeria; and embalming of decomposing stabbed cadavers has been a challenge for morticians in Nigeria, because of the impairment of embalming fluid through the damaged arteries. The aim of this study is to investigate the effectiveness of an embalming mixture containing formalin, methanol and water on stabbed early decomposing carcasses using porcine analogues. Methods: Two infant pigs were used for this study. Animals were sacrificed and allowed to reach the early stage of decomposition before embalming. Cervical arterial and hypodermic embalming techniques were employed. Post-embalming changes were observed and scored. A Pearson correlation analysis was used to determine the relationship between the outcome of embalmment and the embalming mixture. Results: There was a statistically significant moderate positive correlation (r = .576, n = 42, p = .001) between outcome of embalming, and duration of embalming; a statistically significant strong negative correlation (r = -.623, n = 42, p = .001) with volume of embalming fluid; and a statistically significant moderate negative correlation (r = -.528, n = 42, p = .001) with room temperature. There was a statistically insignificant very weak positive correlation (r = .186, n = 42, p = .239) between outcome of embalming and humidity; and a statistically insignificant very weak negative correlation (r = -.141, n = 42, p = .375) with atmospheric temperature. Conclusions: This study validated the embalming methodology and fluid suitable for arresting early decomposition process of stabbed infant carcasses in Nigeria. More so, an embalming mixture containing formalin, methanol and water in equal proportion is suitable for arresting early decomposition of stabbed cadavers. KEYWORDS: Embalming of decomposing bodies, Embalming of stabbed bodies, Funeral services, Modern embalming science, Commercial embalming, Stab wounds, Specialist embalming.

Simulation of Reconstructive Microsurgery in Soft Embalmed Cadavers: A Teaching Module for Plastic Surgery Residents.

Background Cadaveric dissection courses-comprising flap harvesting techniques, vessel dissections, flap transfers to the defect, and microvascular anastomosis-would help residents gain confidence and master these difficult major reconstructive microsurgery procedures. Formalin embalmed bodies lack natural softness and many other features of a live body. Many soft embalming techniques have evolved to mimic live tissue and Theil technique is the most popular one among them. We explored alternate soft embalming options and started using Genelyn. Materials and Methods Over a span of 2 years (2019-2021), we have conducted three flap dissection workshops using soft-embalmed cadavers. Six soft-embalmed and two formalin-embalmed cadavers were used. Total number of participants was 80. Results Feedback of experience from the third course participants in the form of grades (1-5) for different criteria was obtained and evaluated. Confidence in the dissection of the various flaps and microsurgery is noticeable in all the participants. Conclusion Based on our experience, we propose that flap dissection and microsurgery training on soft-embalmed cadavers be included as a teaching module in the plastic surgery postgraduate curriculum.

The Dissection Experience of Orthopedic Resident: A Comparison between Soft‐Preservation and Formalin‐Fixation Embalming Techniques

ObjectiveIn a recent study, it was found that residents will feel more confidence, independence and fluency in the operational procedures presented to them throughout their career if introduced to the learning first on a human donor (James et al., 2020). This study is a comparison of alcohol preserved to standard formalin preserved through regional‐based donor dissection completed by orthopedic residents. The results from this study will help inform orthopedic residencies to consider different preservation techniques of human donors in teaching their future students through dissection for better learning outcomes.MethodsOrthopedic Residents filled out a dissection survey after they had dissected for each week over a course of six weeks. Residents were expected to perform at least one dissection on a formalin‐based donor and one on an alcohol persevered donor for accurate comparison in data collection. The survey used a likert scale format ranging from 1 to 5. The survey questions range from bone, tendon, muscle, ligament, nerve, vessel quality; ease of dissection; similarity to in vivo tissue, ease of finding specific structures, etc. Descriptive statistics were used to describe the differences in resident opinion/experience between the two types of donors.ResultsA total of 24 residents participated in the dissector survey over the six weeks. Residents compared ease of dissection, ease of identification, odor of chemical, skills acquired, joint range of motion, tissue elasticity, donor comparability to live patients, time spent and overall learning preferences. 88.3% of residents in the dissections stated that overall they favored dissecting from alcohol preserved donors. When residents were asked to evaluate the differences in the donor preservations, residents favored alcohol preservation as a better way to stimulate their learning to in vivo tissue.Conclusions/ImplicationsOrthopedic Residents ultimately agree that the alcohol preserved donors are more effective when it comes to identifying the human body framework through dissection. The results suggest that orthopedic residency programs should take into consideration the preservation techniques when teaching their students anatomy from human donors.

A Novel Cadaveric Embalming Technique for Enhancing Visualisation of Human Anatomy.

Within the discipline of anatomical education, the use of donated human cadavers in laboratory-based learning activities is often described as the 'gold standard' resource for supporting student understanding of anatomy. Due to both historical and educational factors, cadaveric dissection has traditionally been the approach against which other anatomy learning modalities and resources have been judged. To prepare human donors for teaching purposes, bodies must be embalmed with fixative agents to preserve the tissues. Embalmed cadavers can then be dissected by students or can be prosected or plastinated to produce teaching resources. Here, we describe the history of cadaveric preservation in anatomy education and review the practical strengths and limitations of current approaches for the embalming of human bodies. Furthermore, we investigate the pedagogic benefits of a range of established modern embalming techniques. We describe relevant cadaveric attributes and their impacts on learning, including the importance of colour, texture, smell, and joint mobility. We also explore the emotional and humanistic elements of the use of human donors in anatomy education, and the relative impact of these factors when alternative types of embalming process are performed. Based on these underpinnings, we provide a technical description of our modern Newcastle-WhitWell embalming process. In doing so, we aim to inform anatomy educators and technical staff seeking to embalm human donors rapidly and safely and at reduced costs, while enhancing visual and haptic tissue characteristics. We propose that our technique has logistical and pedagogic implications, both for the development of embalming techniques and for student visualisation and learning.

A multi-scalar investigation of the colouring materials used in textile wrappings of Egyptian votive animal mummies

Commonly exhibited in museum galleries, animal mummies have been the focus of interest of both visitors and researchers alike. The study of these animal remains not only provides new insights into embalming techniques, but also brings a unique perspective on religious, social and economic practices. Twenty animal mummies are discussed in this study, including cats, ibises, crocodiles, calves and birds of prey from the collections of the British Museum (London, UK) and the Museo Egizio (Turin, Italy). The external textile wrappings encasing the mummified body of the animals were investigated with the main aim of identifying the colourants used. In fact, these are mostly patterned using undyed and coloured (mostly red, brown and black) linen strips. Broadband multispectral imaging (MSI) was initially carried out to obtain preliminary information at the macro-scale on the distribution and chemical nature of the colouring agents. Fibre optic reflectance spectroscopy (FORS) was then used to survey several coloured areas of the textile wrappings. Safflower (Carthamus tinctorius) and red ochre were identified non-invasively. Representative samples were then taken and observed using optical microscopy (OM) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM), in order to obtain information at the micro-scale on the distribution of the colouring agents on the fibres, as well as the presence of other materials, including those from environmental contamination. Energy dispersive X-ray spectrometry (EDX) revealed the elemental composition of particles and clear areas of the fibres, whereas high performance liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (HPLC–MS/MS) provided the identification of the organic dyes at a molecular level. The use of hydrolysable and condensed tannins, in combination with iron as a mordant, was found to be used in the very dark shades, which generally corresponded to the textiles with the worst state of preservation. Nevertheless, other aspects, such as fibre processing and bleaching, fungal attack and presence of coating materials appeared to play a role in the evaluation of the conservation state of these textiles. The characterisation of the dyes and the additional inorganic materials contributed to elucidating the production technology of the colours used for animal mummification, and provided insights into ancient dyeing methods.

Multiple facets of learning a skill - Amalgamation of learning theories in cadaveric surgical skill lab.

Multiple facets of learning a skill - Amalgamation of learning theories in cadaveric surgical skill lab.

Humane innovations in veterinary anatomy education in India

Animal usage plays a central role in Veterinary Sciencewhere millions of animals are used to train students. TeachingVeterinary Anatomy involves sacrificing live animals andembalming them for dissection. It is a highly controversialissue unique to modern science though it lead to many scientificbreakthroughs. A major ethical controversy in this regard is thatit mostly involves pain, suffering and discomfort. Compassionand respect for animals have to be an integral part of veterinaryeducation. Animal welfare encompasses both the physical andpsychological states of the animal. Humane Education was along felt valued need, and teaching objectives need to be metusing non-animal alternatives. This study proposes to phase outsacrifice of animals for teaching, set up an ethically sourcedcadaver-donation programme, develop humane embalmingtechniques, prepare humane non-animal alternatives anddigitalize laboratories to improve teaching-learning skills.Willed-Body Programme as an alternative to healthy animalsacrifice with dissections on ethically sourced donated cadaverswas established. Alternate modes for dissection and humaneexperimental embalming techniques were conducted onethically sourced cadavers using different embalming fluids.Cadaver storage in hazardous formalin was minimized byusing freezers. Innovative teakwood non-animal educationalmodels and video learning resources were prepared. Digitalizedgross anatomy & histology laboratories were established usingHDMI technology. An anatomy youtube channel was launched.A national workshop as an outreach programme was organizedand feedback was obtained. Our studies showed that learningoutcomes generated through humane alternatives were aseffective as those achieved through traditional methods.

Microbial Growth on Soft Embalmed Cadavers Over Time

Objectives At their inception, cadaveric anatomical studies were performed without embalming of any kind. Over time, physicians correlated rates of infection and death with cadaveric exposure and cross contamination. Formaldehyde solutions are now the most familiar and widely used embalming formulas. While formaldehyde embalming provides preservation and disinfection, it also makes cadavers stiff, unpliable and a less efficacious option for surgical training. Fresh cadavers can provide an alternative, however without some sort of preservation these cadavers quickly putrefy and pose an infectious risk. To address this problem, soft embalming techniques have been developed for anatomical and surgical studies. As soft embalming techniques have grown in popularity, the solutions and methods have diversified, and a wide variety of soft embalming solutions are being used. Soft embalmed cadavers are often used over extended periods of time in educational environments making them potential sites for microbial colonization and infectious exposure. While there are many studies evaluating the educational utility of soft embalmed cadavers, there are very few studies monitoring their long-term antimicrobial efficacy. The objectives of this study are twofold: 1. Examine the long-term antimicrobial capacity of a Surgical Reality Fluid, one of the many soft embalming solutions available. 1. Quantify and identify any microorganisms found in order to evaluate for potential infectious risk and possible need for more thorough safety measures when working with such soft embalmed cadavers. Methods Prior to embalming, a sterile swab was used to sample the oral, nasal, rectal, inguinal, pedal, and axillary regions of 4 donated bodies. The samples were then plated on the following agars: blood, EMB, CNA columbia, nutrient, and sabouraud. The agar plates were then incubated at 37 C for 4–7 days. All unique colonies were gram stained in an attempt to identify each colony. PCR was used to quantify bacterial load. The first sampling was completed preembalming and served as a baseline for each cadaver. After embalming, repeat sampling took place every 2 months for 6 months. Results Growth was identified prior to embalming. As data was continually collected, cadavers were monitored for the presence of persisting bacteria or re-colonization over time. Any bacteria present was compared against what was present prior to embalming, what would be expected with a typical non-embalmed necrobiome, and possible cross contamination during educational activities. Conclusions This is the first study to monitor bacterial growth over time on cadavers embalmed with Surgical Reality Fluid. The conclusions of this study serve to elucidate if further safety measures or regulation of embalming techniques are needed for soft embalmed cadavers in an educational setting. Support or Funding Information None

The unintentional effects on body donation programs of a competency‐based curriculum in post‐graduate medical education

A competency‐based curriculum shifts the focus from acquiring knowledge to using knowledge, placing emphasis upon the practices used by professionals and encouraging students to utilize their medical knowledge for specific tasks performed within realistic settings. As medical programs place increasing importance on competency‐based training and surgical simulations for residents, anatomy laboratories and body donation programs find themselves in a position of adapting to changing needs and demands. These skill‐centered curricula exhibit a growing demand for simulation facilities as well as specimens with more realistic properties, and institutions must assess how current or new teaching and embalming techniques respond to the demands of the residency programs they serve. Similarly, institutions’ body donation programs must adapt to a competency‐based curriculum’s greater need for cadaveric specimens, which presents many challenges to a body donation program, ranging from the logistical to the ethical.

Qualitative and quantitative comparison of Thiel and phenol-based soft-embalmed cadavers for surgery training.

Surgical skills training has traditionally been limited to formalinembalming that does not provide a realistic model. The aim of this study was to qualitatively and quantitatively compare Thiel and phenol-based soft-embalming techniques: qualitatively in a surgical training setup, and quantitatively by comparing the mechanical and histomorphometric properties of skin specimens embalmed using each method. Thirty-four participants were involved in surgical workshops comparing Thiel and phenol-based embalmed bodies. Participants were asked to evaluate the utility of the different models for surgical skills training. In parallel, tensile elasticity evaluation was performed on skin flaps from six fresh-frozen cadavers. Flaps were divided into three groups for each specimen: fresh-frozen, Thiel, and phenol-based embalmed and compared together at 1month or 1year after embalming. A histological investigation of the skin structural properties was performed for each embalming type using haematoxylin and eosin and Masson's trichrome. All participants rated the phenol-based specimens consistently better or equivalent to Thiel for the evaluated parameters. Quantitatively, there were statistically significant differences for the tensile elasticity between the embalming techniques (p<.05). There were no significant differences for the tensile elasticity between phenol-based embalmed skin and fresh state (p=.30), and no significant difference between embalming time was reported (p=.47). Histologically, the integrity of the skin was better preserved with the phenol-based technique. Phenol-based embalming provides as realistic or better of a model as Thiel embalming for surgical training skills and was generally preferred over Thiel model. The phenol-based embalming better preserved the integrity of the skin.

Flammability and combustion hazard of preserved human tissues

Preservation techniques have evolved over the years to respond to the need of longer dissection periods, with formaldehyde being widely used for this purpose. In recent years, efforts have been focusing on reducing the health hazards of this fixative and the rigidity of the tissues embalmed with it. With every embalming technique that they are either developing or resurrecting from various protocols, institutions need to assess the fire and health hazards of all the chemicals being used. Compliance with the storage and handling safeguards listed in the Material Safety Data Sheet of each chemical, needs to be accompanied by infrastructure changes. To reduce the health hazards of formaldehyde, institutions are taking appropriate countermeasures directed at the source itself, by using substitutes or injecting formaldehyde chelating agents, and are adopting high performance air extraction systems to protect the users. However, little is known about the flammability risk of embalmed human bodies. During a recent visit to McGill University morgue by architects and safety inspectors to expand it, we were asked about the flammability risk of the embalmed specimens, so we carried out a flashpoint test to evaluate the flammability potential of specimens embalmed with each of our three embalming techniques: formaldehyde-based, Thiel, and phenol-based. With the phenol-based embalming showing the most risks, attention should be drawn to all institutions who are experimenting with various embalming techniques to evaluate the flammability potential of their embalmed specimens.

Phenoxyethanol‐Based Embalming for Anatomy Teaching: An 18 Years' Experience with Crosado Embalming at the University of Otago in New Zealand

Embalming fixatives such as formaldehyde and phenol have been associated with occupational health hazards. While anatomists aim at replacing these chemicals, this seems presently unfeasible in particular for formaldehyde. Furthermore, fixation protocols usually require well‐equipped facilities with highly experienced staff to achieve good fixation results in spite of only a minimal use of formaldehyde. Combining these aspects, a technique robust enough to be carried out by morticians is presented, resulting in durable tissues with minimal formaldehyde use. An embalming protocol involving phenoxyethanol was established, using concentrations of 7 and 1.5 Vol% of phenoxyethanol in the fixative and the conservation fluid, respectively. Visual, haptic, histological, and biomechanical properties and their perceived potential to positively influence student learning outcomes were compared to standard embalming techniques. The phenoxyethanol technique provides esthetic, durable, and odorless tissues. Bleaching is less pronounced compared to ethanol‐ or formaldehyde‐based protocols. The tissues remain pliable following the phenoxyethanol‐based embalming and can be used for biomechanical experiments to some extent. Phenoxyethanol‐fixed tissues are well suited for undergraduate teaching with perceived positive learning outcomes and partly for postgraduate training. Phenoxyethanol tissues provide the option to obtain well‐preserved histology samples, similar to those derived from formaldehyde. The provided protocol helps replace the use of phenol and formaldehyde for conservation purposes and minimizes the use of formaldehyde for the initial injection fixation. Phenoxyethanol‐based embalming forms an effective alternative to standard embalming techniques for human cadavers. It is simple to use, allowing fixation procedures to be carried out in less sophisticated facilities with non‐anatomy staff.

Computed tomography of the heads of ancient Egyptian mummies: a systematic review of the medical literature.

Objective: To summarize the current knowledge on CT scanning of Egyptian mummy heads and faces and provide more valid methodology than that previously available.&#x0D; Material and methods: A systematic review was performed by one observer using two biomedical databases: PubMed and EMBASE. Inclusion and exclusion criteria were applied along with language restrictions. Finally, 2120 articles were found, 359 articles were duplicated among all search equations, 1454 articles were excluded, 307 articles were retained for full review, and 28 articles (31 mummies) were selected for the final study (PRISMA workflow).&#x0D; Results: The data were categorized into the following groups: 1) general information; 2) 1st author affiliation; 3) CT radiological protocol; 4) excerebration pathways; 5) soft tissue preservation; 6) dental status and displaced teeth; 7) packing of the mouth, ears, nose, and eyes, and 8) outer facial appearance. The evidence-based quality of the studies was low because only case reports and small case series were found.&#x0D; Discussion: The embalming art applied to a mummified head and face shows great variability across the whole span of Egyptian civilization. The differences among the various embalming techniques rely on multiple tiny details that are revealed by meticulous analysis of CT scans by a multidisciplinary team of experts.&#x0D; Conclusion: There is a need for more systematization of the CT radiological protocol and the description of Egyptian mumm’y heads and faces to better understand the details of embalming methods.&#x0D;

An Analysis of Soil Microhabitats in Revolutionary War, Civil War, and Modern Graveyards on Long Island, NY

Previously established data indicate that cemeteries have contributed to groundwater and soil pollution. This study aimed to determine whether there was a variation in the microbes in cemeteries due to embalming techniques and to identify primary microbial communities in each cemetery. Different embalming techniques were used during different eras in recent history. These fluids can impact both epinecrotic and thanatomicrobiomes, the microbiomes that exist in decomposing remains. Additionally, these fluids can seep into the microbial communities, affecting the microbiome composition, and continue to leach into the larger surrounding environment, contributing to water source and aquifer pollution. We evaluated the 16S rDNA microbial gene followed by QIIME analyses using the Jupyter Notebooks application. We hypothesized that microbial variation would be high between cemeteries of different eras due to dissimilarities between embalming techniques employed, and furthermore, that specific microbes would act as an indication for certain contaminants. The results indicate that the following phyla were present: Proteobacteria, Planctomycetes, Bacteroidetes, Actinobacteria, Chloroflexi, Verrucomicrobia, Acidobacteria, and AD3. These taxonomic classifications were present in all sites with the exception of AD3 which was absent in the Civil War Cemetery. Overall, cemetery sites were clustered together based on location due to variations in the concentrations of the phyla and their more specific taxa.

Quantitative and Qualitative Comparison of Thiel and Phenol‐Based Soft‐Embalmed skin for Surgical Training

BACKGROUNDSurgical training requires high‐fidelity models to in vivo. Embalmed cadaveric material has long been used as the standard. However, conventional formalin embalming is known to affect the quality of the tissue, compromising the tissue quality for optimal realistic surgical training. The aim of our study was to qualitatively compare Thiel and phenol‐based soft‐embalming techniques in a surgical training setup and to quantitatively compare the mechanical properties of embalmed skin to fresh tissue state.METHODSTwenty‐eight participants (4 experienced ENT and 6 residents; 8 Orthopaedic residents; 4 experienced OTL; 5 experienced Trauma and 1 resident) were involved in surgical workshops comparing Thiel and phenol‐based embalmed bodies. Participants were asked to evaluate pre‐defined aspects pertaining to their appreciation of the skin quality as the usability for skin dissection and suturing.In parallel, mechanical testing of skin flaps was conducted. Skin flaps were harvested from 6 fresh‐frozen thawed cadaveric upper limbs. Skin flaps from each specimen were divided in 3 equal in size sections; one subsection was refrozen, one was Thiel embalmed and the other one was phenol‐based embalmed.The three tissue states were compared together for each specimen, one month of embalming (n=3) or one year after embalming (n=3). Specimens were preloaded and pre‐conditioned before displacement‐controlled cycles were applied using an axial tensile testing machine (MTS, Eden Prairie, MN, USA). The tensile elasticity (Young's modulus) was calculated between loading and unloading state. Statistical analysis was performed using a two‐ way mixed ANOVA with a Holm‐Sidak correction for multiple comparisons.RESULTSQualitatively, 18% of participants rated Thiel as more realistic and preferred this model for skin dissection and suturing; 64% preferred Phenol‐based soft‐embalmed; and 18% rated that both embalming states were comparable.Quantitatively, there were significant differences between the embalming techniques (p &lt; 0.05), but no significant difference were made between embalming time (p = 0.47). Thiel embalmed skin had a significantly lower Young's modulus values compared to fresh state (p &lt; 0.0001). There were no significant differences between phenol‐based embalmed skin and fresh state (p = 0.30).CONCLUSIONAlthough there was variability in the relationship between tissue states, fresh and phenol‐based embalmed state were not consistently stiffer than the other, but both were stiffer than the Thiel embalmed samples; Thiel solution caused the samples to be less stiff than the fresh state. Based on our results, phenol‐based soft‐ embalming preserves the integrity of the skin tensile elasticity better, which could explain the better rating of this embalming technique for the practice of surgical exposures, simulated reconstructions and wound closure. Moreover, phenol‐based embalmed specimens can be prepared for a third of the cost and with none of the elaborate setup required for Thiel embalming.This abstract is from the Experimental Biology 2018 Meeting. There is no full text article associated with this abstract published in The FASEB Journal.

Petamenophis (Padiamenemipet), an Egyptian Child Mummy Protected for Eternity: Revelation by Multidetector Computed Tomography.

The objective of our work was to report the most recent findings obtained with multidetector computed tomography of a child mummy from the Roman period (119-123 CE) housed at the Egyptian Museum in Turin, Italy. Multidetector computed tomography and postprocessing were applied to understand the embalming techniques, the nature of a foreign object, and anthropometrical values. The information was compared with that from other mummies that were buried in the same tomb, but today housed in different museums. New information regarding the embalming technique was revealed. Multidetector computed tomography allowed the identification of a knife-like metallic object, probably an amulet for the child's protection in the afterlife. Multidetector computed tomography and image postprocessing confirm their valuable role in noninvasive studies in ancient mummies and provided evidence of a unique cultural practice in the late history of Ancient Egypt such as placing a knife possibly as an amulet.