Elk Cervus Elaphus Research Articles

Estimating true density in large, alpine herbivores using Google Earth imagery

Density is a fundamental ecological parameter that is often difficult to estimate in large herbivores due to the wide spatial extent of their populations and imperfect detectability of individuals. We searched Google Earth imagery using an independent double‐observer protocol to estimate elk Cervus elaphus density in Yellowstone National Park, WY, USA, on summer range that had never been systematically surveyed. Detectability of elk was high at 0.836 (95% CRI: 0.769, 0.909) producing high precision in our density estimates. Elk density estimates ranged from a minimum of 8.9 elk km−2 over a 214.8 km2 search area (95% CRI: 7.9, 10.9) to a maximum of 14.0 elk km−2 over 98.5 km2 of nonforested, alpine terrain (95% CRI: 13.5, 14.9). These estimates of elk density are comparable to the highest elk densities ever recorded in Yellowstone which primarily derive from winter, at low elevations, prior to wolf Canis lupus reintroduction. A log‐linear positive effect of open landcover on density suggested preference for open terrain. Multiple survey designs may be possible with satellite imagery that would allow further refinement of noninvasive abundance estimation over large scales.

Elk (Cervus elaphus) grazing reduces volunteer soybean density

Management of glyphosate resistant volunteer soybean can be challenging and costly in other glyphosate resistant crops. This study examined the effect of elk (Cervus elaphus) grazing on volunteer soybean (Glycine max) management. Volunteer soybean density was assessed in four fields grazed by elk and three without elk in western Manitoba, Canada. This study determined that elk grazing of soybean stubble significantly reduced soybean volunteer density in the following crop. These results demonstrate that winter elk grazing can be an effective management technique for volunteer soybeans.

ROAD AND RAIL FATALITIES OF ELK, BIGHORN SHEEP, AND GRAY WOLVES IN JASPER NATIONAL PARK, ALBERTA, 1980–2018

Established in 1907, Jasper National Park (JNP) comprises 10,880 km2 of mountainous terrain in western Alberta, Canada. Its large mammals have been protected from hunting and trapping, but are subject to accidental collisions with vehicles and trains on the Yellowhead Highway and the Canadian National Railway (CNR) that transect JNP. This paper reviews the park's historical inventory of Elk (Cervus elaphus), Bighorn Sheep (Ovis Canadensis), and Gray Wolves (Canis lupus), and reports on their number killed by vehicles and trains from 1980 to 2018. Elk population estimates declined from 1000 in 1975 to 318 in 2018. An aerial survey of Bighorn Sheep flown in 2018 over all of JNPs sheep range recorded a decline of 58–62% compared to 1987. In the lower main valley, discrete bands of rams and ewes declined on 2 traditional winter ranges. The road and rail fatalities of Elk and sheep were superimposed on predation. In the late 1970s, wolves were estimated at 160, but reached an undetermined low in 2018 following year-round trapping on JNPs boundaries and accidental fatalities on the park's roads and railways.

Elk population dynamics when carrying capacities vary within and among herds

Population and land management relies on understanding population regulation and growth, which may be impacted by variation in population growth parameters within and among populations. We explored the interactions between variation in carrying capacity (K), intrinsic population growth rate (r), and strength of density dependence (β) within and among elk (Cervus elaphus) herds in a small part of the geographic range of the species. We also estimated stochastic fluctuations in abundance around K for each herd. We fit linear Ricker growth models using Bayesian statistics to seven time series of elk population survey data. Our results indicate that K and β varied among herds, and that r and β varied temporally within herds. We also found that herds with smaller K had less stochastic fluctuation in abundances around K, but higher temporal variation in β within herds. Population regulation and the rate of return to the equilibrium abundance is often understood in terms of β, but ecological populations are dynamic systems, and temporal variation in population growth parameters may also influence regulation. Population models which accommodate variation both within and among herds in population growth parameters are necessary, even in mild climates, to fully understand population dynamics and manage populations.

Survival and Cause-Specific Mortality of Neonate Elk in a Unique Predator Environment in the Black Hills of South Dakota and Wyoming, U.S.A.

We conducted a 2 y study of survival and cause-specific mortality of elk (Cervus elaphus) calves to determine the current status of elk occupying the southwestern region of the Black Hills National Forest, South Dakota and eastern Wyoming. We captured and fit 71 calves ≤10 d of age with expandable radiocollars during summer 2012 (n = 37) and 2013 (n = 34). We used known-fate analysis in Program MARK to estimate summer (15 May–25 Sep.) and annual (12 mo) survival for elk calves. The top model for summer survival was {S1–2wk,3–20wk} indicating mortality during 1–2 wk of age and 3–20 wk of age best explained survival; overall probability of surviving 20 wk was 0.79 (95% CI = 0.68–0.88). For annual (12 mo) survival, model {Sbirthweight} had the lowest AICc value indicating birth weight of elk calves best explained survival as heavier born calves had a higher probability of survival. The overall probability a calf survived to 12 mo of age was 0.75 (95% CI = 0.61–0.84). Cougar (Puma concolor) predation accounted for 81% of mortalities; remaining mortalities were from starvation (6.3%, n = 1) and unknown causes (6.3%, n = 1). Our results document high survival for calves likely due to productive habitats, an ecosystem-specific predator guild, and high alternative prey.

Novel Strain of the Chronic Wasting Disease Agent Isolated From Experimentally Inoculated Elk With LL132 Prion Protein

Chronic wasting disease (CWD) is a fatal, progressive disease that affects cervid species, including Rocky mountain elk (Cervus elaphus nelsoni). There are 2 allelic variants in the elk prion protein gene: L132 (leucine) and M132 (methionine). Following experimental oral challenge with the CWD agent incubation periods are longest in LL132 elk, intermediate in ML132 elk, and shortest in MM132 elk. In order to ascertain whether such CWD-infected elk carry distinct prion strains, groups of Tg12 mice that express M132 elk prion protein were inoculated intracranially with brain homogenate from individual CWD-infected elk of various genotypes (LL132, LM132, or MM132). Brain samples were examined for microscopic changes and assessment of the biochemical properties of disease-associated prion protein (PrPSc). On first passage, mice challenged with LL132 elk inoculum had prolonged incubation periods and greater PrPSc fibril stability compared to mice challenged with MM132 or LM132 inoculum. On second passage, relative incubation periods, western blot profiles, and neuropathology were maintained. These results suggest that the CWD prion isolated from LL132 elk is a novel CWD strain and that M132 PrPC is able to propagate some biophysical properties of the L132 PrPSc conformation.

Condition of mule deer during winter: stress and spatial overlap with North American elk

We assessed body condition, diet quality (indexed by fecal nitrogen), and stress levels (using fecal glucocorticoid metabolites) in mule deer Odocoileus hemionus in southeastern Idaho, USA, during a mild (2007) and a harsh winter (2008) to evaluate spatial overlap and potential competition with North American elk Cervus elaphus. We used data from GPS telemetry to construct spatially explicit maps of local population density of elk for January–April. Loss of body condition over winter in yearling and adult female mule deer was not related to elk density but to winter severity. Fecal nitrogen increased as winter progressed in both winters, was significantly lower during 2008 than in 2007, but was not related to local population density of elk. In the mild winter of 2007, a significant positive relationship existed between local population density of elk and fecal glucocorticoid metabolite levels of mule deer, indicating increased physiological stress among mule deer wintering in close proximity to elk. Fecal glucocorticoid metabolite levels in deer were lower in 2008 than in 2007 and exhibited no significant relationship with elk density. Declining fecal glucocorticoid levels through winter may be typical of northern cervids. No difference existed in levels of fecal glucocorticoids between sexes of deer. A reduction in elk populations may not improve diet quality, physiological stress levels, or body condition of mule deer on winter range, especially during severe winters. Consequently, management and conservation of winter habitat are more likely to benefit mule deer than would altering density of elk.

The Effects of Previous Grazing on the Subsequent Nutrient Supply of Ungulates Grazing Late-summer Mixed-Conifer Rangelands

Ecological, societal, and political discussions abound regarding intra- and inter-specific competition for nutrients among wild and domestic ungulates grazing shared forested rangelands in summer as cascading effects of prior grazing drive subsequent grazing patterns and nutrient intake. Our objective was to determine diet quality and quantity of cattle (Bos taurus), mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus hemionus; deer), and elk (Cervus elaphus nelsoni) in late-summer in response to early-summer forage utilization by cattle and elk in two consecutive years. Four 2.25 ha enclosures were constructed in previously logged mixed-conifer rangelands dominated by grand fir (Abies grandis [Douglas] Forbes.), and within each enclosure, a 0.75 ha paddock was either: 1) ungrazed, 2) grazed by cattle, or 3) grazed by elk in mid-June and mid-July at a moderate utilization level (31.9 ± 2.7%). After grazing treatments, each paddock was subdivided into three 0.25 ha sub-paddocks and sixteen 20-minute foraging bouts were conducted in each sub-paddock using elk, deer, and cattle (n = 4). Within an animal species CP in diets did not differ (p > 0.05) between ungrazed paddocks and grazed paddocks; however, diet CP and IVDMD of each species was higher (p < 0.05) on cattle grazed paddocks compared to elk grazed. Regardless of treatment, cattle diets contained lower CP, IVDMD (p < 0.05) than did deer or elk diets, and relative to elk, deer consistently selected diets which contained higher CP (p < 0.05). In response to grazing, intake rate of DM, CP, ME did not change (p > 0.05) for any of the ungulates. The study revealed that early-summer grazing by cattle or elk at a moderate utilization level has minimal effect on the subsequent nutrient intake rate of cattle, deer, and elk foraging in mixed-conifer forests.

Population Dynamics Model to Inform Harvest Management of a Small Elk Herd in Central New Mexico

Abstract Crop depredation by wildlife is a frequent concern for natural resource managers and mitigation of this issue is often an important task for wildlife agencies. Elk Cervus elaphus and other ungulate species have depredated corn Zea mays at Bosque del Apache National Wildlife Refuge, New Mexico, USA, interfering with the ability of the Refuge to provide sufficient supplemental nutrition to overwintering sandhill cranes Antigone canadensis and geese (Anatidae). We estimated annual adult survival and calf recruitment rates of elk from 2011 to 2013 at Bosque del Apache National Wildlife Refuge. Natural adult survival (excludes human-related mortalities) was high (mean = 98.3%; 95% CI = 95.0–100.0%). Calf recruitment was lower than in some populations, and ranged from 13.0 to 36.7 calves : 100 cows at time of recruitment (March and April) with a mean of 21.9 (SD =12.9). Using this information, we constructed a harvest management model to determine annual harvest quotas required to stabilize the growth of the elk herd on the Refuge. The female segment of the herd is growing at an annual rate of 9.0% (95% CI = −1.1–24.1%). To stabilize the growth rate of the female elk population, 8.0% (95% CI = −1.1–19.4%) of the cows would need to be harvested annually. We estimated an adult elk abundance of 40.0 (SE = 4.57; 95% CI = 33.8–52.6) in 2012 and 61.1 (SE = 7.21; 95% CI = 49.9–78.8) in 2013. Our harvest management model provides Refuge staff, who ultimately intend to improve corn yield, with valuable information needed to stabilize the elk herd. Further, our approach outlines a simple, easily implemented modeling technique that can be used for the management of other ungulate herds.

Green‐wave surfing increases fat gain in a migratory ungulate

Each spring, migratory herbivores around the world track or ‘surf’ green waves of newly emergent vegetation to distant summer or wet‐season ranges. This foraging tactic may help explain the great abundance of migratory herbivores on many seasonal landscapes. However, the underlying fitness benefits of this life‐history strategy remain poorly understood. A fundamental prediction of the green‐wave hypothesis is that migratory herbivores obtain fitness benefits from surfing waves of newly emergent vegetation more closely than their resident counterparts. Here we evaluate whether this behavior increases body‐fat levels – a critically important correlate of reproduction and survival for most ungulates – in elk Cervus elaphus of the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem. Using satellite imagery and GPS tracking data, we found evidence that migrants (n = 23) indeed surfed the green wave, occupying sites 12.7 days closer to peak green‐up than residents (n = 16). Importantly, individual variation in surfing may help account for up to 6 kg of variation in autumn body‐fat levels. Our findings point to a pathway for anthropogenic changes to the green wave (e.g. climate change) or migrants’ ability to surf it (e.g. development) to impact migratory populations. To explore this possibility, we evaluated potential population‐level consequences of constrained surfing with a heuristic model. If green‐wave surfing deteriorates by 5–15 days from observed, our model predicts up to a 20% decrease in pregnancy rates, a 2.5% decrease in population growth, and a 30% decrease in abundance over 50 years. By linking green‐wave surfing to fitness and illustrating potential effects on population growth, our study provides new insights into the evolution of migratory behavior and the prospects for the persistence of migratory ungulate populations in a changing world.

Characteristics of Winter Wolf Kill Sites in the Southern Yellowstone Ecosystem

Abstract Understanding the spatial use of wolves and how that might relate to prey species may help predict areas with increased likelihood of wolf–prey interactions, areas where wolves may have a higher impact on prey populations, or areas of wolf–livestock conflict. After reintroduction into Yellowstone National Park in 1995, wolves Canis lupus expanded south and recolonized areas in and around Grand Teton National Park in the southern Yellowstone ecosystem in Wyoming, USA. Elk Cervus elaphus in this area are supplementally fed at three feedgrounds artificially increasing elk density. We tracked radio-collared and uncollared wolves annually in winter (December–March) from 2000 to 2008 to investigate kill sites. Our objective was to investigate potential differences in habitat variables (e.g., canopy cover, elevation) between kill sites (n = 295) and available (random; n = 2,360) locations and investigate whether factors influencing winter wolf kill sites differed in a natural setting (i.e., native winter range) vs. an artificial setting (i.e., near or on feedgrounds). Wolf kills occurred at sites with lower elevation, canopy cover, and terrain roughness compared with random locations. Wolf kills were also slightly farther from packed surfaces (i.e., roads or groomed snowmobile trails) and elk feedgrounds, although still in areas of higher intensity of use by elk compared with random locations. Kill sites on native winter range were considerably more rough (odds ratio = 4.47) than those on feedgrounds. Our results suggest wolves hunt where the likelihood of encountering prey is high, although in areas where prey distribution is more sparse (i.e., native winter range), wolves may need to rely on rougher terrain for successful hunts. The relationship between areas of high prey use and increased wolf activity has important implications for both wildlife managers and livestock producers. In the future, managers will continue to face the issue of having high concentrations of ungulates, either wild or domestic, and the obvious attraction this has for wolves.

Bayesian Inference for Multistate \u2018Step and Turn\u2019 Animal Movement in Continuous Time

Mechanistic modelling of animal movement is often formulated in discrete time despite problems with scale invariance, such as handling irregularly timed observations. A natural solution is to formulate in continuous time, yet uptake of this has been slow. This lack of implementation is often excused by a difficulty in interpretation. Here we aim to bolster usage by developing a continuous-time model with interpretable parameters, similar to those of popular discrete-time models that use turning angles and step lengths. Movement is defined by a joint bearing and speed process, with parameters dependent on a continuous-time behavioural switching process, creating a flexible class of movement models. Methodology is presented for Markov chain Monte Carlo inference given irregular observations, involving augmenting observed locations with a reconstruction of the underlying movement process. This is applied to well-known GPS data from elk (Cervus elaphus), which have previously been modelled in discrete time. We demonstrate the interpretable nature of the continuous-time model, finding clear differences in behaviour over time and insights into short-term behaviour that could not have been obtained in discrete time.

‘MigrateR’: extending model‐driven methods for classifying and quantifying animal movement behavior

To be useful, definitions of animal movement behavior (e.g. migration) should be quantitatively rigorous, flexible enough to accommodate variation in species biology (e.g. latitudinal vs elevational movement) and sufficiently general to allow comparison among different species. Recent studies have applied a model‐driven approach to classifying and quantifying animal movement from global positioning system (GPS) location data. We improve upon these methods by 1) revising model structure to provide a simple biologically‐defensible basis to reduce misclassification; 2) introducing a data‐efficient tool that can be used to quantify and circumvent model sensitivity to starting location; and 3) illustrating how existing models can be adapted to describe short‐distance migration, using elevational migration as an example. These improvements are included in ‘migrateR’, an open source R package that expands and automates model‐driven classification and quantification of animal movement behavior. We demonstrate the software and these improved methods using GPS‐collar location data from a long‐distance migrant, elk Cervus elaphus, and a short‐distance elevational migrant, Sierra Nevada bighorn sheep Ovis canadensis sierrae. We provide in‐text example code and a supplementary script illustrating how default options can be revised to meet several common challenges in fitting movement models.

Monitoring of pseudotuberculosis in an Italian Population of Alpine Chamois: Preliminary Results

Caseous lymphadenitis (CLA) of sheep and goats is a chronic and often sub-clinical disease, with high prevalence in different parts of the world, which can caused significant economic losses for farmers. The causative agent is Corynebacterium pseudotuberculosis that primarily infects domestic small ruminants, but it has been isolated also in wildlife such as pronghorns (Antilocapra americana) and elk (Cervus elaphus canadensis). Furthermore, a recent research has demonstrated a maintenance of the infection on an endemic level in a Spanish ibex (Capra pyrenaica hispanica) population after an outbreak with high morbidity and mortality. The typical clinical manifestation is lymph node abscess that may fistulize and discharge pus contaminating the environment where can survive for months in faeces, fomites, and soil. Infected subjects with the sub-clinical form can also shed bacteria through respiratory tract and mechanical vectors such as flies. Human infection is a rare event. Wildlife-livestock interfaces are dynamic and bidirectional and pathogens could be transmitted freely within and between the two species. The study area is the Alpine hunting district located in Vercelli province (formerly named C.A. VC1). The study was carried out during 2016 hunting season, between September and December and performed on hunted chamois. A macroscopic examination of each carcass has been conducted at the Control Centre, where each hunter had to bring the chamois after culling for the control by a veterinarian. Hunters collected post-mortem-blood samples via jugular or heart clot from their own bag and leaded up to the Control Centre where serum was obtained by centrifugation and stored at -20°C until further processing. A commercial enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) kit (ELITEST CLA, HYPHEN BioMed, France) has been used to detect antibodies (IgG) anti-PLD. Results have been expressed as OD after reading the plates at 450 nm in an ELISA microplate reader. The aim of this monitoring is to confirm the circulation of C. pseudotuberculosis in the chamois population as suspected on the basis of the finding of several chamois with characteristic lesions during previous hunting seasons and to identify risk factors for the infection and the development of clinical signs of disease. 196 chamois have been hunted in 2016 hunting season, a total of 34 sera have been processed (1 kid, 7 yearlings, 17 adult males, 9 adult females) showing a seroprevalence of 8.82% (c.i. 95% 0.0-18.26). One yearling female and two adult females resulted seropositive; at the macroscopic examination the two adults had showed typical lymph node abscesses in abdominal cavity and the oldest was underweight and presented typical dermatophilosis lesions. Furthermore, a 4-year-old male showed a grey zone OD. The results of this first year survey on the territory are to be considered as preliminary, the starting point for a data collection that can become a historical series that could give useful management guidance in the near future. In spite of this, it can be safely stated that the first results obtained confirm the circulation of C. pseudotuberculosis, together with the pathological and bacteriological diagnoses of previous years. The fact that a yearling seropositive has been found without any lesions found is evidence of the current circulation of the pathogen as this subject has come into contact with the infection during the previous year.

Elk management and policy in southern Greater Yellowstone: Assessing the constitutive process

The Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem, USA, is recognized globally as a model for land and wildlife conservation, management, and policy. A major policy problem in the region is the highly contentious winter feeding of elk (Cervus elaphus) on 23 government feed grounds in western Wyoming through cooperative management under several state and federal agencies. Numerous non-governmental groups and concerned citizens are also affected by elk management or seek to contribute to management policies. The long-term controversy shows that this issue centers on how management and policy should be made and who should be involved in decision-making—the constitutive policy process. This paper examines and appraises the constitutive process in this case, including how competency, authority, and control are allocated. It also looks at how institutions, analytic techniques, procedures, and people are structured, selected, and included or excluded in decision-making processes. Our data come from a multi-method approach over the past decade, including participant-observation, historical literature, interviews, media analysis, and technical reports. Our analysis shows that institutional dynamics severely constrain the scope of deliberations, the production of practical problem definitions, and the search for improvements in elk management. We recommend that participants focus on the constitutive level of policy making, i.e., the underlying structure and functioning of policy processes, learn how these elements function and affect processes and outcomes, and learn to configure them in ways that embody democratic principles, serve common interests, and resolve policy problems.

Dispersal Ecology Informs Design of Large-Scale Wildlife Corridors

Landscape connectivity describes how the movement of animals relates to landscape structure. The way in which movement among populations is affected by environmental conditions is important for predicting the effects of habitat fragmentation, and for defining conservation corridors. One approach has been to map resistance surfaces to characterize how environmental variables affect animal movement, and to use these surfaces to model connectivity. However, current connectivity modelling typically uses information on species location or habitat preference rather than movement, which unfortunately may not capture dispersal limitations. Here we emphasize the importance of implementing dispersal ecology into landscape connectivity, i.e., observing patterns of habitat selection by dispersers during different phases of new areas’ colonization to infer habitat connectivity. Disperser animals undertake a complex sequence of movements concatenated over time and strictly dependent on species ecology. Using satellite telemetry, we investigated the movement ecology of 54 young male elk Cervus elaphus, which commonly disperse, to design a corridor network across the Northern Rocky Mountains. Winter residency period is often followed by a spring-summer movement phase, when young elk migrate with mothers’ groups to summering areas, and by a further dispersal bout performed alone to a novel summer area. After another summer residency phase, dispersers usually undertake a final autumnal movement to reach novel wintering areas. We used resource selection functions to identify winter and summer habitats selected by elk during residency phases. We then extracted movements undertaken during spring to move from winter to summer areas, and during autumn to move from summer to winter areas, and modelled them using step selection functions. We built friction surfaces, merged the different movement phases, and eventually mapped least-cost corridors. We showed an application of this tool by creating a scenario with movement predicted as there were no roads, and mapping highways’ segments impeding elk connectivity.

Social interactions in a solitary carnivore.

In total, 177 of 245 terrestrial carnivores are described as solitary, and much of carnivore ecology is built on the assumptions that interactions between adult solitary carnivores are rare. We employed Global Positioning System (GPS) technology and motion-triggered cameras to test predictions of land-tenure territoriality and the resource dispersion hypothesis in a territorial carnivore, the puma Puma concolor. We documented 89 independent GPS interactions, 60% of which occurred at puma kills (n = 53), 59 camera interactions, 11 (17%) of which captured courtship behaviors, and 5 other interactions (1 F-F, 3 M-F, and 1 M-M). Mean minimum weekly contact rates were 5.5 times higher in winter, the season when elk Cervus elaphus were aggregated at lower elevations and during which puma courtship primarily occurred. In winter, contacts rates were 0.6 ± 0.3 (standard deviation (SD)) interactions/week vs. 0.1 ± 0.1 (SD) interactions/week during summer. The preponderance of interactions at food sources supported the resource dispersion hypothesis, which predicts that resource fluxes can explain temporary social behaviors that do not result in any apparent benefits for the individuals involved. Conspecific tolerance is logical when a prey is so large that the predator that killed it cannot consume it entirely, and thus, the costs of tolerating a conspecific sharing the kill are less than the potential costs associated with defending it and being injured. Puma aggregations at kills numbered as high as 9, emphasizing the need for future research on what explains tolerance among solitary carnivores.

Birth Mass Scaling in Elk (Cervus elaphus)

Abstract Scaling studies on phenotypic characteristics like birth mass are useful to understanding life history attributes within species. The wide range in body mass of elk (Cervus elaphus) in North America and Europe allows robust estimation of scaling relationships. Our goal was to estimate the scaling relationship of maternal body mass and offspring birth mass. Data were extracted from the literature, which included captive elk fed a readily digestible diet rich in nutrients. The mass of the mother at birth and the birth mass of the young were recorded for 11 groups of mothers and their offspring. A simple linear regression was used to estimate an allometric relationship between maternal body mass and offspring birth mass (R2 = 0.90). Birth mass scaled to the 0.78 power of maternal body mass. Understanding scaling relationships affecting maternal investment might have implications for understanding body size variation across the geographic range of elk.

Choosing Sampling Interval Durations for Remotely Classifying Rocky Mountain Elk Behavior

Abstract Dual-axis accelerometer global positioning system collars can be used to remotely record the activity level and behavior of free-ranging animals, but inter- and intraspecific variations in motion among behaviors necessitate calibration for each species of interest. To date, little work has been done to determine the best duration for sampling intervals when using activity monitors that incorporate dual-axis accelerometers. However, we expected that the duration of behaviors relative to the duration of sampling intervals could affect the accuracy of calibration and behavior classification models. Furthermore, we considered the potential effect of winter diet supplementation (hay) on behavior classification. We used Lotek 4500 global positioning system collars featuring dual-axis accelerometer activity monitors to collect data for calibration and classification trials on Rocky Mountain elk Cervus elaphus nelsoni. We used discriminant function model structures to determine the number of accurately classifiable behaviors that could be derived from data sampled over three sampling interval durations (5 min, 152 s, and 64 s) while also considering the potential effect of hay supplementation on classification. Our results suggest that investigators should ascertain whether their focal elk herd accesses or might access supplemental hay before deployment and analysis of activity sensor data. Similarly, researchers must weigh priorities when choosing a sampling interval, because no optimal solution emerged from our investigation. For example, of our acceptable models, only those constructed using 64-s intervals were able to distinguish short bouts of running. However, only models constructed with 5-min intervals accurately classified browsing while also maximizing the number of behaviors identified.

Identification of elk preferences for different diet supplements

Although diet supplementation is a well-established tool for managing livestock distributions and improving vegetation, the principle is less commonly applied to wild ungulates. One reason for this is that it is not known whether wildlife species, such as elk (Cervus elaphus), will habituate to novel supplements and feeders in the landscape. We, therefore, performed a pilot study during winters of 2013 and 2014 to test Rocky Mountain elk (C. e. nelsoni) preferences for 4 diet supplements—2 high in energy (beet pulp and molasses) and 2 high in protein (soybean meal and canola meal)—at a feeding ground in northern Utah, USA. We also tested elk preference for 2 types of feeders that differed in shape, size, and color. We measured the amounts of supplement consumed by elk and used observational techniques (scan sampling) to determine supplement and feeder preference. The weights of refused supplements showed that elk discriminated among supplements, showing greater preferences for high-energy supplements during periods of low ambient temperatures (P < 0.05). Observational techniques revealed that elk preferred red, short, and wide feeders (P < 0.05). Our results illustrate that elk discriminate among diet supplements and feeder types, suggesting that diet supplementation may be a viable tool to relocate elk away from overused areas. © 2016 The Wildlife Society.