Elite Youth Sport Research Articles

They are still children: a scoping review of conditions for positive engagement in elite youth sport

ObjectiveThe objective of this study is to characterise the key factors that influence positive engagement and desirable developmental outcomes in sport among elite youth athletes by summarising the methods, groups...

Supplement usage and doping attitudes in elite youth sports: The mediating role of dietary supplement acceptance.

This study investigated whether dietary supplement acceptance mediated the relationship between supplement use and doping attitudes in youth sports. To this end, we employed a two-wave half-longitudinal design during a sports season (time point one [T1] to time point two [T2]). The sample consisted of 217 elite youth athletes (47% male; mean age = 16.98 years, standard deviation = 0.88) who competed in team sports (43%; N = 93; basketball, floorball, handball, and ice hockey) and individual sports (57%; N = 124; alpine skiing, biathlon, cross-country skiing, swimming, and tennis). The participants were recruited from eight Norwegian sports academy high schools that provide extracurricular, higher-level training and specialization for youth athletes. Results from structural equation modeling analysis indicated that dietary supplement acceptance (T2) mediated the positive relationship between supplement use (T1) and doping attitudes (T2) when accounting for prior levels of the mediator and the outcome variable. These findings suggest that when young athletes used dietary supplements at the start of the season to improve their performance, they were more likely to view the use of supplements as acceptable and to report more favorable attitudes toward doping at the end of the season six months later. For those seeking to prevent doping in youth sports, targeting athletes' views on the acceptable use of dietary supplements may be important.

Mental Health Among Elite Youth Athletes: A Narrative Overview to Advance Research and Practice.

Participation in sports during youth is typically beneficial for mental health. However, it is unclear whether elite sport contexts contribute to greater risk of psychological distress or disorder. The aims of this paper are to highlight conceptual issues that require resolution in future research and practice, and to examine the key factors that may contribute to the mental health of elite youth athletes (EYAs). A narrative overview of the literature combined with the clinical and research expertise of the authors. Narrative overview. Level 5. EYAs experience a range of biopsychosocial developmental changes that interact with mental health in a multitude of ways. In addition, there are various sport-specific factors that contribute to the mental health of EYAs that may become more prominent in elite contexts. These include - but are not limited to - patterns relating to athlete coping and self-relating styles, the nature of peer, parental, and coach relationships, organizational culture and performance pressures, and mental health service provision and accessibility. A range of critical factors across individual, interpersonal, organizational, and societal domains have been shown to contribute to mental health among EYAs. However, this evidence is limited by heterogeneous samples and varied or imprecise terminology regarding what constitutes "youth" and "elite" in sport. Nevertheless, it is clear that EYAs face a range of risks that warrant careful consideration to progress to best practice principles and recommendations for mental health promotion and intervention in elite youth sport. Level C.

Links between environmental features and developmental outcomes of elite youth athletes: A cross-sectional study within the German talent pathway

From a holistic perspective, the talent development environment (TDE) influences not only the athletic development but also the development of personal skills as well as the wellbeing of elite youth athletes. Alongside research on the effects of broader environmental features on athlete-related talent development (TD) outcomes, the importance of the closer social climate (i.e., teammates, coaches, support staff) is also emphasized. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between environmental features, the social climate and athlete-related TD outcomes (I). Additionally, an exploratory analysis was conducted to investigate the role of motivational climate and psychological safety in the relationship between environmental features and athlete-related TD outcomes (II). To this end, 345 German elite youth athletes completed an online survey assessing their perceptions of environmental features, coach-created motivational climate, and psychological safety as well as wellbeing, performance satisfaction, and life skills development. The results revealed that environmental features (especially long-term development focus, effective coach-athlete communication, and the social network), motivational climate and psychological safety were all significantly associated with the outcome variables. These findings underline the significance of environmental features for athlete-related TD outcomes of young talented athletes in German elite youth sports. However, the results indicated that motivational climate and psychological safety did not have significant indirect effects on the relationship between TDE features and athlete-related TD outcomes. Thus, it remains to be questioned if and what other processes influence this relationship.

Experiences of rehabilitation in young elite athletes: an interview study

Even though injuries are common in elite youth sports, rehabilitation experiences are limited explored in young athletes. This study explored rehabilitation experiences in athletes with a previous injury studying at...

Screening of Depression and Mental Health in Elite Youth Sports: Differences in Risk Estimation Between the PHQ-2 and the WHO-5

This study aims to examine whether the risk for depression differs between using a disease- and a health-oriented instrument in elite youth sport and to uncover relationships of risk with concern to age, sex, type of sport, and level of performance. A sample of 549 eleven- to twenty-one-year-old elite athletes were screened using the German versions of the Patient Health Questionnaire-2 (PHQ-2) and the WHO Well-Being Index-5 (WHO-5). For external validity, the state of physical well-being and mood state, as well as recovery measures, were assessed. The proportions of athletes at high risk for mental health problems were 11.3% (PHQ-2) and 12.8% (WHO-5) of the participants. Young athletes (<15 years old) and male athletes showed lower risk values compared with older or female athletes. Moreover, PHQ-2 and WHO-5 values correlated with physical well-being and subjective sleep parameters. Both instruments were practical and diagnostically conclusive. Further studies on the validation of the instruments are recommended.

Coaches’ perceptions of their work in an elite youth sport setting

Coaches’ perceptions of their work in an elite youth sport setting

Sport-specific performances in elite youth sport climbers; gender, age, and maturity specifics

Abstract Study aim: The increase in the number of professional climbers led to the development of climbers since early age. Therefore, the average age of elite climbers has decreased over the last decade. Consequently, age and maturity specifics should be investigated with the influential factors in climbing. This research aimed to investigate the forearm muscle strength in youth sport climbers and determine the gender, age, and maturity status as factors of influence on forearm muscle performance in elite youth climbers. Materials and methods: This research included 18 elite sport climbers (Croatian National team members), divided into two age groups: younger (aged 13–15 years) and older (aged 16–18 years). Variables included anthropometric indices (body mass, body height, body fat percentage, ape index), handgrip strength, and climbing-specific forearm strength. Results: Climbers did not differ between age groups in the studied variables. Also, no significant correlations were found among anthropometric/body-built indices and forearm muscle performances, with age and maturity offset. However, when gender stratified, there were associations between forearm capacity in sitting position and maturity offset in girls (r = 0.73; p < 0.05) but not in boys. Conclusion: Results could be explained by the assumption that each subsequent generation is better than the previous one. Also, the associations between performance variables and biological age in girls are probably related to girls’ earlier maturation and specificity of sports selection. Forearm muscle capacities are a crucial determinant of success in sports climbing, and a good assessment of these muscle groups could serve as a tool for sport-specific selection.

The Effect of Shoulder and Knee Exercise Programmes on the Risk of Shoulder and Knee Injuries in Adolescent Elite Handball Players: A Three-Armed Cluster Randomised Controlled Trial

BackgroundThe risk of injury in adolescent handball is high, and shoulder and knee injuries are among the most frequent and burdensome. The Swedish Knee Control programme reduced the risk of anterior cruciate ligament injuries in female youth football players and traumatic knee injuries in male and female youth floorball players. However, to date, Knee Control has not been evaluated in an elite youth sport setting. The literature on the prevention of shoulder injuries in sport is scarce, and there are to our knowledge no previous studies evaluating the preventative efficacy of injury prevention exercise programmes (IPEPs) on shoulder injuries in adolescent handball players.ObjectivesTo study the preventive efficacy of IPEPs on shoulder and knee injuries in adolescent elite handball players.MethodsEighteen Swedish handball-profiled secondary schools (clusters) with players aged 15–19 years, 54% males were randomised into either the Shoulder Group or Knee Group (interventions) or a Control Group. Players in the Shoulder Group were instructed to perform the Shoulder Control programme, and players in the Knee Group to perform the Knee Control programme, three times per week during May 2018 to May 2019. Control Group players continued their usual training. Outcomes were shoulder and knee injuries defined by the Oslo Sports Trauma Research Center Overuse Injury Questionnaire. Intention-to-treat analyses were performed using Cox regression models with hazard rate ratios (HRRs) with corresponding 95% confidence intervals (CI).ResultsSix clusters (199 players) in the Shoulder Group, six clusters (216 players) in the Knee Group and six clusters (212 players) in the Control Group were included. There were 100 shoulder injuries and 156 knee injuries. The Shoulder Group had a 56% lower shoulder injury rate, HRR 0.44 (95% CI 0.29 to 0.68), and the Knee Group had a 31% lower knee injury rate, HRR 0.69 (95% CI 0.49 to 0.97) than the Control Group. The absolute risk reduction was 11% and 8%, and the number needed to treat was 9 and 13, respectively.ConclusionsAdolescent elite handball players who performed the Shoulder Control and the Knee Control programmes had a lower risk of shoulder and knee injuries, respectively, than players who continued their usual training. Further research on how these two programmes can be combined to reduce knee and shoulder injuries in a time effective way is warranted.Trial registration ISRCTN15946352.Key pointsThe burden of knee and shoulder injuries in handball is high.The Shoulder Control programme reduces the risk and overall burden of shoulder injuries in adolescent elite handball players.The Knee Control programme reduces the risk and overall burden of knee injuries in adolescent elite handball players.

Parents’ experiences of family food routines in adolescent elite-level swimming

ObjectiveParents have an important role in their child’s food routines and eating behaviour and face additional demands when that child is an athlete. Yet little is known about how parents manage providing food for their athletic child, in addition to the wider family, within the context of elite-level youth sport. MethodsSemi-structured interviews were conducted with sixteen parents (mothers = 11; fathers = 5) of elite level adolescent swimmers (i.e., competing at UK national level or above; child mean age = 15.4 years) to explore their experiences of family food routines and eating behaviour. Reflexive Thematic Analysis was used to analyse the data. ResultsParents outlined the importance of ‘optimal’ fuelling for their athletic child. Parents had an active role in their child’s eating behaviour and shaping their food choices but expressed uncertainty regarding the volume of food their child should consume and concerns regarding their child’s future relationship with food. Meticulous organisational and logistical strategies were employed to meet the extensive food requirements of their adolescent elite swimmer in the face of intensive training schedules. Such schedules also impacted food routines for the wider family (i.e., fewer family mealtimes), and on the quality of parents’ own diets. ConclusionThe findings highlight that clearer guidance is needed for parents of elite adolescent swimmers in relation to quantities of food intake and how to support a positive future relationship with food (specifically during any periods of transition in their training or out of the sport). The findings also identify a novel organisational stressor for parents in elite youth sport, in managing and prioritising their own diet. Further research is needed to explore the extent to which parental diet may be impacted by supporting an adolescent athlete.

Parental strategies for supporting children’s psychosocial development within and beyond elite sport

There remains limited research into the role that parents play to support their child’s psychosocial development within elite youth sport contexts. The present study was conducted in an English professional youth football (soccer) academy that has intentionally integrated the 5Cs framework (Harwood; commitment, communication, concentration, control, confidence) into its player development process. The purpose of the study was to explore parents’ interpretations of their roles and experiences of supporting young athletes’ psychosocial development in this context. Six focus groups were conducted with 30 parents (17 fathers, 13 mothers; M age = 44.8) who had a child in the foundation (8–11 years) or youth development phase (12–16 years). The transcripts were analyzed using reflexive thematic analysis. Parental strategies employed to support their child’s 5Cs within and beyond the academy included providing encouragement and tailoring feedback, establishing and sharing expectations with their child, creating an autonomy-supportive environment, encouraging participation in activities outside of the academy, and understanding football and the nature of the academy. Barriers perceived as hindering parents’ support reflected the salience of coach-parent communication at the academy. Accompanying recommendations and implications are discussed for enabling improved congruency between coaches and parents, and how parent education can be better tailored to support intentional psychosocial development within elite youth sport pathways. Lay summary: Conducted at a professional football academy that has integrated a psychosocial framework into the player development process, this study explored parents’ interpretations of their roles and experiences of supporting young athletes’ psychosocial development. Parents discussed practical strategies, barriers, and recommendations to support their child’s development in and beyond sport. IMPLICATIONS FOR PRACTICE Parents can support young athletes’ psychosocial development by considering the broader contexts in which they occupy, including how they communicate at home, how they control their emotions within their sport programs, and how they demonstrate commitment at school. When parents employ an intentional approach to supporting psychosocial development, young athletes may become more aware of the possibilities for transferring their psychosocial skills beyond football, or their immediate sport context. Strengthening the communication between parents and coaches within a sport program, and the education offered to parents and coaches, can help sport parents better support their child’s psychosocial development within and beyond the sport program. Engagement with a parent 5C program can provide parents with a meaningful return on their time in academy football to not only support their child but to help them navigate the known demands of being a parent in an elite youth sport environment.

Mediational Role of Mental Toughness on the Relationship Between Self-Efficacy and Prosocial/Antisocial Behavior in Elite Youth Sport.

The modeling and reinforcement of efficacy beliefs and mental toughness in sport continue to generate significant curiosity in the sport psychology research. Investigations into how these behaviors interact and, in the process, affect the development of prosocial and antisocial behaviors among youth athletes are relatively few. This is despite growing evidence of strong associations between self-efficacy beliefs, mental toughness, and various kinds of adaptive and maladaptive behaviors in sport. Therefore, this study sought to examine if mental toughness mediates the relationship between self-efficacy and prosocial/antisocial behaviors in Botswana youth athletes. The study also examined if data from Botswana fit the proposed factor structure of the Sports Mental Toughness Questionnaire, the Self-efficacy Scale, and the Prosocial and Antisocial Behavior in Sport scale. A total of 158 male (n = 81) and female (n = 77) junior secondary school and senior secondary school (middle and high school) athletes aged 14–20 years old enrolled in Centers for Sport Excellence in Botswana participated in the study. Results showed support for the factor structure of the study's measurement tools. The constancy dimension of mental toughness mediated the relationship between self-efficacy and prosocial/antisocial behavior to teammate and opponent. These findings have implications for research and practice aimed at enhancing efficacy beliefs, mental toughness, and positive youth sport experiences. Contextual relevance of this line of research and measurement tools are discussed.

The trajectories and developmental experiences of twin high-performance athletes in life skill development

Life skills development across developmental stages has been considered a complex endeavor. Research is needed to understand how family environments may influence athletes’ life skills development through sport experiences. Nonetheless, we are not aware of any studies to date that have explored how shared family environment of twins influence their life skills development. This study used Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis to examine twin professional athletes’ experiences in learning life skills in development, elite youth, and high-performance sport contexts. The findings show the twins’ coaches lacked an explicit approach to life skills development, but through support from their father, the twins still perceived that their coaches had an indirect effect on their personal development. This study also highlights how negative experiences in high performance sport played a role in positive life skill development, which is a novel finding from this study. Their father's support and their shared family environment were considered key and enabled the athletes to learn life skills from both negative and positive experiences in sport. It is fair to state that the twins had privileged support (i.e., father) which may not be accessible to many athletes across a range of contexts.

Short- and Long-Term Stroboscopic Training Effects on Visuomotor Performance in Elite Youth Sports. Part 1: Reaction and Behavior.

Recent research suggests that stroboscopic training is an effective tool to improve visual and visuomotor performance. However, many studies were limited by small samples, short training interventions, inexperienced athletes, and an exclusive focus on short-term effects. This first part of the study evaluates the short- and long-term effects of stroboscopic training on visuomotor reaction speed in elite athletes. Forty-five young elite badminton athletes participated in this study, of which 32 (13.7 yr) were included in the final data analysis. Participants were assigned to an intervention (stroboscopic vision) or control group (normal vision). Both groups performed identical badminton-specific training drills implemented into the regular training schedule. Before and after a 10-wk training period and after a 6-wk retention interval, athletes performed a laboratory reaction test to determine EMG onset and visuomotor reaction time (VMRT). In addition, a field test investigated stroboscopic training effects on the quality of ball-racquet contact and net drop performance. VMRT decreased immediately after stroboscopic training (pre, 251 ms; post, 238 ms; P = 0.005, d = 0.63), and reactions remained significantly faster after the retention interval (retention, 241 ms; P = 0.041, d = 0.50). Analyses on EMG onset data suggested these adaptations were attributable to the premotor rather than the motor time. VMRT remained unchanged in the control group (pre, 252 ms; post, 256; retention, 253 ms; P > 0.99). Field test performance improvements were observed for the quality of ball-racquet contact and net drop performance; however, changes were not different between groups. Stroboscopic training induced short- and long-term accelerations of visuomotor reaction speed in elite badminton players. Stroboscopic eyewear may be an effective training tool to accelerate visuomotor reactions in highly skilled athletes.

Short- and Long-Term Stroboscopic Training Effects on Visuomotor Performance in Elite Youth Sports. Part 2: Brain-Behavior Mechanisms.

Stroboscopic training has repeatedly been shown to improve visuomotor abilities. However, although performance improvements were attributed to visual processes, information on the neurophysiological mechanisms is missing. Part 2 of this study investigated the effects of stroboscopic training on neural visual and motor functions and its contribution to training-induced changes in visuomotor reaction time. Forty-five young elite badminton athletes participated in this study, of which 32 (age, 13.7 yr) were included in the final data analysis. Participants were assigned to an intervention (stroboscopic vision) or control group (normal vision). Before and after a 10-wk training and after a 6-wk retention period, participants performed visual perception and reaction tasks in response to visual motion stimuli. The N2 and N2-r motion onset visual-evoked potentials, its linear combination (Vlc), and the BA6 negativity potential were determined using a 64-channel EEG. A significant TIME-GROUP effect was observed for the Vlc score (P = 0.019, ηp2 = 0.18), indicating a lower Vlc in the intervention group. However, post hoc tests did not reach significance. Within-subject correlation analyses revealed that changes in reaction speed were related to latency changes in N2 (r = 0.59, P < 0.001), N2-r (r = -0.64, P < 0.001), and the combined Vlc (r = 0.68, P < 0.001). Regression analyses across participants including multiple (N2/N2-r) or single (Vlc) predictors provided an explained variance of >60% (N2/N2-r, r2 = 0.62; Vlc, r2 = 0.64). No training effects or correlations were observed for the BA6 negativity. The results indicate that faster visuomotor reactions after stroboscopic training are accompanied by accelerated visual perception and processing, whereas motor processes seemed to be unaffected. Stroboscopic training may be promising to specifically address the visual system in visuomotor-demanding sports.

Developing an Organizational Mission Statement in Youth Sport: Utilizing Mad Libs as a Novel, Shared Leadership Approach

Sport organizations often utilize mission statements as “road maps” to guide the design and delivery of sport to youth. In the present work, we utilized a novel technique and sought out the perspectives of multiple stakeholders to craft a mission statement for an elite youth volleyball club on the east coast of the United States. Prior to the competitive season, a subset of club administrators (n = 3) head coaches (n = 6), parents (n = 10), and athletes (n = 11) participated in Mad Libs, a phrasal word game in which individuals are asked to fill in missing words in a prescribed, written story template. Key mission-relevant words were left blank, and beneath each blank was a prompt such as “noun (what the club should provide)”, “verb (what the club should do)”, or “adjective (kind of partnerships the club should build).” Participants completed stories individually, and responses were synthesized using content analysis. We then crafted a three-sentence mission statement and shared it with club stakeholders at a preseason meeting. The mission statement was adopted by the club and guides the direction of the club and its members. Importantly, our work highlights a novel technique, informed by a range of stakeholder perceptions and experiences, that can be used to craft an organizational mission statement in elite youth sport.

The Coach–Parent Relationship and Athlete Development in Elite Youth Hockey: Lessons Learned for Conflict Management

Extensive research highlights the important roles of coaches and parents in fostering positive youth development (PYD). However, little research has examined the complex coach–parent relationship in the bidirectional interactions of the coach-parent-athlete triad. This research is particularly pertinent in elite youth sport, wherein the performance-oriented environment may impede the pursuit of PYD. As such, this study aimed to deepen understandings of the coach–parent relationship in relation to athletes’ PYD. Specifically, the first author critically analyzed and reflected on his experiences as an elite youth ice hockey coach, thus offering a unique portrayal of reflective practice in the context of sport coaching. Two interconnected themes emerged: understanding conflict in the coach-parent-athlete relationship and fostering collaboration through enhanced coach–parent communication. Findings and reflections are discussed in relation to the dual-concern model of conflict resolution, and strategies to help practitioners foster cooperative coach–parent relationships are presented.

Everything matters: The importance of shared understanding to holistically support the psycho-social needs of academy footballers

Elite youth sport environments present unique psychological and social challenges as well as physical challenges to young athletes. In recent years there has been a growing interest in the impact of the psychological and social context across sport including elite football development. However, relatively little has been shared about how these ideas can be put into practice in real world football academies. This paper aims to illustrate concepts and values that underpin the psychological and social environment in a premier league football academy. It describes the work of the academies ‘psych-social team’ (PST), who work with, and within, the wider academy. The aims of the PST are to integrate these ideas across the whole multidisciplinary team (MDT) to create an environment that is both safe and psychologically informed to enhance performance and development of young players. By sharing this developing model, we hope to spark discussion, and collaboration across football about how best to create practical and operational solutions to holistic psychological and social development.

Facilitating Positive Youth Development in Elite Youth Hockey: Exploring Coaches’ Capabilities, Opportunities, and Motivations

Youth sport has been identified as a viable means to facilitate positive youth development (PYD) and nurture fully prepared and contributing adults. However, questions have arisen regarding elite youth sport as a context to effectively foster PYD, and specifically the role of the coach in this process. To explore how coaches facilitate PYD in elite youth sport, the first author immersed himself in the elite youth hockey setting as an assistant coach. Using an ethnographic research design, he observed four AAA minor hockey head coaches of four teams in a large urban center in Ontario over the course of one season. In addition, each coach participated in two semistructured interviews. Framed within the COM-B model, we examined how coaches’ capabilities, opportunities, and motivations influenced their behaviors related to facilitating PYD. The coaches discussed and demonstrated several behaviors (e.g., setting high standards, providing leadership opportunities, communicating with the athletes) with the potential to facilitate PYD; however, the sport structure (i.e., professional sports model that focuses on competition and performance from early childhood) often restricted their ability to do so. Further, coaches’ own motivations to achieve performance success presented a challenge to fostering PYD on some occasions. The results are situated within PYD literature and may evoke practical considerations for elite youth sport coaches aiming to foster PYD more effectively. Lay summary: Four AAA minor hockey coaches were interviewed and observed over the course of a season. Although the coaches were capable and motivated when it came to fostering the personal development of their players, the performance-oriented structure of the minor hockey system meant that coaches often prioritized winning over player development.

Achievement-Motivated Behavior in Individual Sports (AMBIS-I)\u2014Coach Rating Scale

The assessment of achievement motivation in the context of selection decisions in elite youth sports is associated with serious problems (e.g. socially desirable responses). In order to counteract such problems, an external rating scale for the assessment of the Achievement-Motivated Behavior in Individual Sports (AMBIS-I) from a coach’s perspective was constructed and checked for psychometric quality in three consecutive steps. The studies are based on four different German-speaking samples, including 101 experienced coaches from individual sports and 26 sport psychologists. Multiple phases of exploratory structural equation modeling, item removal and cross-validation unveiled a three-factorial model with 10 items displaying excellent fit indices, acceptable to good reliability, and evidence based on internal structure. Relationships with athletes’ performance level point to the instrument’s evidence for test-criterion relationship. These preliminary results are promising when considering the construction and show the potential of the economical coach rating scale for the scientifically sound assessment of observable achievement-motivated behavior in individual sports.