Elite Track Cyclists Research Articles

IMPROVING SPORT SCIENCE IMPACT IN ATHLETE-LED PRACTICE ENVIRONMENTS: A PERSEPCTIVE FROM TRACK CYCLING

INTRODUCTION & AIMS Like most high performance sports, track cyclists are typically supported within the training environment by coaches and interdisciplinary practitioners who, through evidence-based practices, guide the athlete through the process of performance development. To effectively impact practice and athlete performance, practitioners must be able to implement their knowledge and expertise in a way that complements the wider performance team. The aim of this study was to examine track cycling coaches’ perspectives of the role and impact of sport science and research on their practice and the athlete development process. METHODS Semi-structured interviews were conducted with elite track cycling coaches (n=8) who had been working at the highest level of the sport (Olympics, UCI World Championships). The interviews addressed factors contributing to athlete preparation, and the current and potential impact of sport science on the development of elite track cyclists. Reflexive thematic analysis was conducted to identify common themes in participants’ experiences and perspectives. RESULTS Three principal themes were identified from the data: ‘conversation & the information dynamic’, highlighting the impact of information and feedback within the performance team for developing collective training intelligence; ‘integrating performance components for the individual’, detailing the importance of individualised and integrated approaches to athletes’ performance needs; and, ‘science to complement the vision’, examining the value of filtered data, and limitations of research in practice. CONCLUSION The findings highlighted two key contributors to performance team effectiveness: athletes deeply invested in, and actively contributing to, the development process; and, performance staff identifying and filtering research and data to impact decision making and athlete development. A four-stage model was developed from the collective findings for guiding sport scientists’ impact in athlete-led practice environments. Additionally, the model outlines sport scientist-supportive actions for coaches and athletes, along with practice-supportive actions for researchers, to improve impact within the sport.

Validation of LEOMO inertial measurement unit sensors with marker-based three-dimensional motion capture during maximum sprinting in track cyclists

ABSTRACT LEOMO™ is a commercial inertial measurement unit system that provides cycling-specific motion performance indicators (MPIs) and offers a mobile solution for monitoring cyclists. We aimed to validate the LEOMO sensors during sprint cycling using gold-standard marker-based three-dimensional (3D) motion technology (Qualisys, AB). Our secondary aim was to explore the relationship between peak power during sprints and MPIs. Seventeen elite track cyclists performed 3 × 15s seated start maximum efforts on a cycle ergometer. Based on intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC3,1), the MPIs derived from 3D and LEOMO showed moderate agreement (0.50 < 0.75) for the right foot angular range (FAR); left foot angular range first quadrant (FARQ1); right leg angular range (LAR); and mean angle of the pelvis in the sagittal plane. Agreement was poor (ICC < 0.50) between MPIs derived from 3D and LEOMO for the left FAR, right FARQ1, left LAR, and mean range of motion of the pelvis in the frontal and transverse planes. Only one LEOMO-derived (pelvic rotation) and two 3D-derived (right FARQ1 and FAR) MPIs showed large positive significant correlations with peak power. Caution is advised regarding use of the LEOMO for short maximal cycling efforts and derived MPIs to inform peak sprint cycling power production.

Fatigue-induced Alterations of the Patellar Tendon in Elite Sprint Track Cyclists.

This study aims to investigate morphological and mechanical properties and echogenicity of the patellar tendon (PT) after acute fatigue-induced alterations in sprint track cyclists. Fourteen elite track cyclists participated in this study. The exercise protocol consisted of three maximal start accelerations (over a distance of 62.5 m), one maximal start acceleration (at both 125 m and 250 m), and sprints from the standing start. Immediately after testing all measurements, PT stiffness and thickness were set at 5-10-15-20 mm distal from the apex of the patella and 5-10 mm proximal to the tibial tuberosity. CSA was set at proximal, middle, and distal, while echogenicity was at proximal and distal points. The results showed significant increases in PT stiffness at all reference points after start acceleration (p<0.001). PT thickness showed similar results for stiffness, except for location placed at TT-5 (p<0.001). CSA increased significantly in proximal, middle, and distal regions (p<0.001), while echogenicity of the tendon increased in proximal and distal regions (p<0.001) after start acceleration. Regional-dependent alterations of PT thickness and stiffness may be related to anatomical and physiological mechanisms due to acute isometric contraction in the initial phase of standing start. Tendon echogenicity might be also useful in monitoring tendon mechanical properties and defining acute fatigue-induced changes.

A modified formula using energy system contributions to calculate pure maximal rate of lactate accumulation during a maximal sprint cycling test.

Purpose: This study aimed at comparing previous calculating formulas of maximal lactate accumulation rate ( ν La.max) and a modified formula of pure ν La.max (P ν La.max) during a 15-s all-out sprint cycling test (ASCT) to analyze their relationships. Methods: Thirty male national-level track cyclists participated in this study (n = 30) and performed a 15-s ASCT. The anaerobic power output (Wpeak and Wmean), oxygen uptake, and blood lactate concentrations (La-) were measured. These parameters were used for different calculations of ν La.max and three energy contributions (phosphagen, W PCr; glycolytic, W Gly; and oxidative, W Oxi). The P ν La.max calculation considered delta La-, time until Wpeak (tPCr-peak), and the time contributed by the oxidative system (tOxi). Other ν La.max levels without tOxi were calculated using decreasing time by 3.5% from Wpeak (tPCr -3.5%) and tPCr-peak. Results: The absolute and relative W PCr were higher than W Gly and W Oxi (p < 0.0001, respectively), and the absolute and relative W Gly were significantly higher than W Oxi (p < 0.0001, respectively); ν La.max (tPCr -3.5%) was significantly higher than P ν La.max and ν La.max (tPCr-peak), while ν La.max (tPCr-peak) was lower than P ν La.max (p < 0.0001, respectively). P ν La.max and ν La.max (tPCr-peak) were highly correlated (r = 0.99; R 2 = 0.98). This correlation was higher than the relationship between P ν La.max and ν La.max (tPCr -3.5%) (r = 0.87; R 2 = 0.77). ν La.max (tPCr-peak), P ν La.max, and ν La.max (tPCr -3.5%) were found to correlate with absolute Wmean and W Gly. Conclusion: P ν La.max as a modified calculation of ν La.max provides more detailed insights into the inter-individual differences in energy and glycolytic metabolism than ν La.max (tPCr-peak) and ν La.max (tPCr -3.5%). Because W Oxi and W PCr can differ remarkably between athletes, implementing their values in P ν La.max can establish more optimized individual profiling for elite track cyclists.

Erratum. A Novel Approach to Determining the Alactic Time Span in Connection with Assessment of the Maximal Rate of Lactate Accumulation in Elite Track Cyclists.

"Erratum. A Novel Approach to Determining the Alactic Time Span in Connection with Assessment of the Maximal Rate of Lactate Accumulation in Elite Track Cyclists" published on 16 Feb 2023 by Human Kinetics.

A Novel Approach to the Determination of Time- and Fatigue-Dependent Efficiency during Maximal Cycling Sprints.

During maximal cycling sprints, efficiency (η) is determined by the fiber composition of the muscles activated and cadence-dependent power output. To date, due to methodological limitations, it has only been possible to calculate gross efficiency (i.e., the ratio of total mechanical to total metabolic work) in vivo without assessing the impact of cadence and changes during exercise. Eliminating the impact of cadence provides optimal efficiency (ηopt), which can be modeled as a function of time. Here, we explain this concept, demonstrate its calculation, and compare the values obtained to actual data. Furthermore, we hypothesize that the time course of maximal power output (Pmax) reflects time-dependent changes in ηopt. Twelve elite track cyclists performed four maximal sprints (3, 8, 12, 60 s) and a maximal-pedaling test on a cycle ergometer. Crank force and cadence were monitored continuously to determine fatigue-free force-velocity profiles (F/v) and fatigue-induced changes in Pmax. Respiratory gases were measured during and for 30 min post-exercise. Prior to and following each sprint, lactate in capillary blood was determined to calculate net blood lactate accumulation (ΔBLC). Lactic and alactic energy production were estimated from ΔBLC and the fast component of excess post-exercise oxygen consumption. Aerobic energy production was determined from oxygen uptake during exercise. Metabolic power (MP) was derived from total metabolic energy (WTOT). ηopt was calculated as Pmax divided by MP. Temporal changes in Pmax, WTOT, and ηopt were analyzed by non-linear regression. All models showed excellent quality (R2 > 0.982) and allowed accurate recalculation of time-specific power output and gross efficiency (R2 > 0.986). The time-constant for Pmax(t) (τP) was closely correlated with that of ηopt (τη; r = 0.998, p < 0.001). Estimating efficiency using τP for τη led to a 0.88 ± 0.35% error. Although efficiency depends on pedal force and cadence, the latter influence can be eliminated by ηopt(t) using a mono-exponential equation whose time constant can be estimated from Pmax(t).

A Novel Approach to Determining the Alactic Time Span in Connection with Assessment of the Maximal Rate of Lactate Accumulation in Elite Track Cyclists.

Following short-term all-out exercise, the maximal rate of glycolysis is frequently assessed on the basis of the maximal rate of lactate accumulation in the blood. Since the end of the interval without significant accumulation (talac) is 1 of 2 denominators in the calculation employed, accurate determination of this parameter is crucial. Although the very existence and definition of talac, as well as the validity of its determination as time-to-peak power (tPpeak), remain controversial, this parameter plays a key role in anaerobic diagnostics. Here, we describe a novel approach to determination of talac and compare it to the current standard. Twelve elite track cyclists performed 3 maximal sprints (3, 8, and 12s) and a high-rate, low-resistance pedaling test on an ergometer with monitoring of crank force and pedaling rate. Before and after each sprint, capillary blood samples were taken for determination of lactate accumulation. Fatigue-free force-velocity and power-velocity profiles were generated. talac was determined as tPpeak and as the time point of the first systematic deviation from the force-velocity profile (tFf). Accumulation of lactate after the 3-second sprint was significant (0.58 [0.19]mmol L-1; P < .001, d = 1.982). tFf was <3seconds and tPpeak was ≥3seconds during all sprints (P < .001, d = - 2.111). Peak power output was lower than maximal power output (P < .001, d = -0.937). Blood lactate accumulation increased linearly with increasing duration of exercise (R2 ≥ .99) and intercepted the x-axis at ∼tFf. Definition of talac as tPpeak can lead to incorrect conclusions. We propose determination of talac based on tFf, the end of the fatigue-free state that may reflect the beginning of blood lactate accumulation.

Applications of near-infrared spectroscopy in "anaerobic" diagnostics - SmO2 kinetics reflect PCr dephosphorylation and correlate with maximal lactate accumulation and maximal pedalling rate.

We investigated the relationship of the time-dependent behaviour of muscle oxygen saturation SmO2(t), phosphagen energy supply WPCr(t) and blood lactate accumulation ΔBLC(t) during a 60-s all-out cycling sprint and tested SmO2(t) for correlations with the end of the fatigue-free state tFf, maximal pedalling rate PRmax and maximal blood lactate accumulation rate v̇Lamax. Nine male elite track cyclists performed four maximal sprints (3, 8, 12, 60 s) on a cycle ergometer. Crank force and cadence were monitored continuously to determine PRmax and tFf based on force-velocity profiles. SmO2 of the vastus lateralis muscle and respiratory gases were measured until the 30th minute after exercise. WPCr was calculated based on the fast component of the post-exercise oxygen uptake for each sprint. Before and for 30 minutes after each sprint, capillary blood samples were taken to determine the associated ΔBLC. Temporal changes of SmO2, WPCr and ΔBLC were analysed via non-linear regression analysis. v̇Lamax was calculated based on ΔBLC(t) as the highest blood lactate accumulation rate. All models showed excellent quality (R2 > 0.95). The time constant of SmO2(t) τSmO2 = 2.93 ± 0.65 s was correlated with the time constant of WPCr(t) τPCr = 3.23 ± 0.67 s (r = 0.790, p < 0.012), v̇Lamax = 0.95 ± 0.18 mmol · l-1 · s-1 (r = 0.768, p < 0.017) and PRmax = 299.51 ± 14.70 rpm (r = -0.670, p < 0.049). tFf was correlated with τSmO2 (r = 0.885, p < 0.001). Our results show a time-dependent reflection of SmO2 kinetics and phosphagen energy contribution during a 60-s maximal cycling sprint. A high v̇Lamax results in a reduction, a high PRmax in an increase of the desaturation rate. The half-life of SmO2 desaturation indicates the end of the fatigue-free state.

Fatigue-Free Force-Velocity and Power-Velocity Profiles for Elite Track Sprint Cyclists: The Influence of Duration, Gear Ratio and Pedalling Rates.

Background: Maximal force-velocity (F/v) profiles for track cyclists are commonly derived from ergometer sprints using an isovelocity or isoinertial approach. Previously, an attempt was made to derive maximal F/v profiles from a single maximal 65-m sprint on the cycling track. Hypothesising that this approach may not accurately reflect the fatigue-free F/v profile, we propose an alternative procedure and compare it to the previous method. Moreover, we test for the impact of gear ratio on diagnostic results. Methods: Twelve elite track cyclists completed a high-cadence low-resistance pedalling test on a freestanding roller (motoric test) and two series of three maximal 65-m sprints on a cycling track with different gear ratios. F/v profiles were calculated based on the measured crank force and cadence either during the first 6–7 revolutions (≤6 s) on the track (model I) or were derived from the first 3–4 revolutions (≤3 s) on the track combined with 1 or 2 fatigue-free cycles at cadences above 160 rpm from the motoric test (model II). Results: Although both models exhibit high-to-excellent linearity between force and velocity, the extrapolated isometric force was higher (1507.51 ± 257.60 N and 1384.35 ± 276.84 N; p < 0.002; d = 2.555) and the slope steeper (−6.78 ± 1.17 and −5.24 ± 1.11; p < 0.003, d = −2.401) with model I. An ICC of 1.00 indicates excellent model consistency when comparing the F/v profiles (model II) derived from the different geared sprints. Conclusions: Assuring fatigue-free measurements and including high-cadence data points in the calculations provide valid maximal F/v and P/v profiles from a single acceleration-sprint independent of gear ratio.

Ultrasound imaging of patellar tendon thickness in elite sprint track cyclists and elite soccer players: An intra-rater and inter-rater reliability study.

The goal of our study was to investigate the relative and absolute intra-rater and inter-rater reliability of ultrasound assessment of patellar tendon (PT) thickness assessed over four locations, in track cyclists and soccer players. Fifteen male elite track cyclists and 15 male elite soccer players participated. Tendon thickness was measured over 4 locations placed at 5-10-15-20 mm inferior to the apex of the patella by two experienced examiners. Each examiner took two US images for the test measurements with a 10-min rest period. After a 30-min period, the subjects underwent a retest measurements that were also repeated 1-week after. A two-way analysis of variance revealed a significant group x location interaction on PT thickness for Examiner 1 (p = .001, η2 = .81) and Examiner 2 (p = 0.001, η2 = 0.78). Intra-rater reliability ranged from good to excellent (ICC2,k ≥ 0.75), whereas inter-rater reliability was good (ICC2,k ≥ 0.75) in both groups. Ultrasonographic assessment of PT was found to be a reliable method to assess tendon thickness. The middle location of the PT (corresponding to 15 and 20 mm) can be considered the most reliable spot to measure PT thickness. The PT thickness was larger among track cyclists than soccer players, with larger differences over the distal location (15 mm). Ultrasonographic assessment of PT was found to be a reliable method to assess tendon thickness. The middle location of the PT corresponding to 15 mm and 20 mm can be considered the most reliable area to measure PT thickness.

Modeling Optimal Cadence as a Function of Time during Maximal Sprint Exercises Can Improve Performance by Elite Track Cyclists

In track cycling sprint events, optimal cadence PRopt is a dynamic aspect of fatigue. It is currently unclear what cadence is optimal for an athlete’s performance in sprint races and how it can be calculated. We examined fatigue-induced changes in optimal cadence during a maximal sprint using a mathematical approach. Nine elite track cyclists completed a 6-s high-frequency pedaling test and a 60-s isokinetic all-out sprint on a bicycle ergometer with continuous monitoring of crank force and cadence. Fatigue-free force-velocity (F/v) and power-velocity (P/v) profiles were derived from both tests. The development of fatigue during the 60-s sprint was assessed by fixing the slope of the fatigue-free F/v profile. Fatigue-induced alterations in PRopt were determined by non-linear regression analysis using a mono-exponential equation at constant slope. The study revealed that PRopt at any instant during a 60-s maximal sprint can be estimated accurately using a mono-exponential equation. In an isokinetic mode, a mean PRopt can be identified that enables the athlete to generate the highest mean power output over the course of the effort. Adding the time domain to the fatigue-free F/v and P/v profiles allows time-dependent cycling power to be modelled independent of cadence.

A Novel Approach of Modelling and Predicting Track Cycling Sprint Performance

In cycling, performance models are used to investigate factors that determine performance and to optimise competition results. We present an innovative and easily applicable mathematical model describing time-resolved approaches for both the physical aspects of tractional resistance and the physiological side of propelling force generated by muscular activity and test its validity to reproduce and forecast time trials in track cycling. Six elite track cyclists completed a special preparation and two sprint time trials in an official velodrome under continuous measurement of crank force and cadence. Fatigue-free force-velocity profiles were calculated, and their fatigue-induced changes were determined by non-linear regression analysis using a monoexponential equation at a constant slope. Model parameters were calibrated based on pre-exercise performance testing and the first of the two time-trials and then used to predict the performance of the second sprint. Measured values for power output and cycling velocity were compared to the modelled data. The modelled results were highly correlated to the measured values (R2&gt;0.99) without any difference between runs (p&gt;0.05; d&lt;0.1). Our mathematical model can accurately describe sprint track cycling time trial performance. It is simple enough to be used in practice yet sufficiently accurate to predict highly dynamic maximal sprint performances. It can be employed for the evaluation of completed runs, to forecast expected results with different setups, and to study various contributing factors and quantify their effect on sprint cycling performance.

Feminist Sociology Confluences With Sport Science: Insights, Contradictions, and Silences in Interviewing Elite Women Athletes About Low Energy Availability

This article explores the socio-cultural dimensions of elite sportswomen’s experiences of low energy availability (LEA), focusing particularly on elite track cyclists. With a multidisciplinary research team (two sport scientists and a feminist sociologist), the project began with a suite of quantitative measures that identified five of eight women track cycling athletes categorized with LEA and three athletes categorized with sub-optimal energy availability. This was then followed by semi-structured interviews that revealed the athletes’ complex relationships with body image, menstruation, and nutrition practices, and varied experiences of LEA. Bringing the qualitative data into dialogue with the previously collated physiological data, however, helped us acknowledge the silences and deflection strategies among those with more severe cases of LEA. Ultimately, this article offers original insights both into elite track cyclists’ understandings of body image, menstruation, and nutrition as associated with LEA, and important reflections on the challenges of doing interviews with sportswomen on sensitive topics in high-performance sporting environments.

Reliability and sensitivity of the Notio Konect to quantify coefficient of drag area in elite track cyclists

ABSTRACT Elite level cycling events are performed at speeds in excess of 50 km/h. At these speeds, over 90% of the resistance forces come from aerodynamic resistance (CDA). Recently bicycle-mounted pitot tubes, such as the Notio Konect (NK) have become more commercially available making CDA easier to measure. Its reliability and sensitivity would be useful for riders and coaches to be able to understand what constitutes as a change in CDA. Accordingly, the aim of this study was to establish the intra- and inter-effort reliability and sensitivity of the CDA measures of the NK. Seven elite level track riders were used in this study which was broken into two parts: (1) Reliability and (2) Sensitivity. For both parts of the experiment, riders performed identical efforts, riding at ∼50 km/h for six laps of a 250 m indoor velodrome. For reliability, the riders performed six efforts without any changes in position or resistance. For sensitivity, they performed the efforts with a rod with discs of a known diameters attached at each end to vary the CDA by a known amount. For the reliability assessment, low coefficient of variation of intra – (0.47%) and inter-effort (0.9%) reliability were measured. With regards to sensitivity, the smallest changes in resistance (from 5 – 6 cm, i.e. 1.2% or 0.002 m2) was identified by the NK. The data in this experiment suggests that the NK is a highly reliable in measuring CDA can detect changes up to at least 1.2% in an indoor velodrome using elite level track riders. Highlights The Notio Konect showed high levels of inter- and intra-effort reliability. The Notio Konect could detect a change as small as 1.2% in aerodynamic drag. The findings suggest that the Notio Konect is suitable for detecting small changes in aerodynamic drag in a velodrome setting.

Quadriceps and Patellar Tendon Thickness and Stiffness in Elite Track Cyclists: An Ultrasonographic and Myotonometric Evaluation

Track cyclists are required to perform short- and long-term efforts during sprint and endurance race events, respectively. The 200 m flying sprint races require maximal power output and anaerobic capacity, while the 4,000 m pursuit cyclists demand a high level of aerobic capacity. Our goal was to investigate spatial changes in morphological and mechanical properties displayed using 3D topographical maps of the quadriceps muscle and tendons after 200 m flying start and 4,000 m individual pursuit race in elite track cyclists. We hypothesized a non-uniform distribution of the changes in the quadriceps muscle stiffness (QMstiff), and acute alterations in quadriceps tendon (QTthick) and patellar tendon (PTthick) thickness. Fifteen men elite sprint and 15 elite men endurance track cyclists participated. Sprint track cyclists participated in a 200 m flying start, while endurance track cyclists in 4,000 m individual pursuit. Outcomes including QTthick (5–10–15 mm proximal to the upper edge of the patella), PTthick (5–10–15–20 mm inferior to the apex of the patella)—using ultrasonography evaluation, QMstiff, and quadriceps tendon stiffness (QTstiff) were measured according to anatomically defined locations (point 1–8) and patellar tendon stiffness (PTstiff)—using myotonometry, measured in a midway point between the patella distal and the tuberosity of tibial. All parameters were assessed before and after (up to 5 min) the 200 m or 4,000 m events. Sprint track cyclists had significantly larger QTthick and PTthick than endurance track cyclists. Post-hoc analysis showed significant spatial differences in QMstiff between rectus femoris, vastus lateralis, and vastus medialis in sprint track cyclists. At before race, sprint track cyclists presented significantly higher mean QTthick and PTthick, and higher QMstiff and the QTstiff, as compared with the endurance track cyclists. The observed changes in PTThick and QTThick were mostly related to adaptation-based vascularity and hypertrophy processes. The current study suggests that assessments using both ultrasonography and myotonometry provides crucial information about tendons and muscles properties and their acute adaptation to exercise. Higher stiffness in sprint compared with endurance track cyclists at baseline seems to highlight alterations in mechanical properties of the tendon and muscle that could lead to overuse injuries.

PO-037 Validation Of Capillary Blood Gas Analysis For The Assessment Of Training Load In Track Cycling

Objective The energy supply of daily training of track cycling should be mainly by anaerobic metabolism, which can make the blood buffer capacity facing huge Challenge and being improved. The arterialized capillary blood gas analysis can be a reliable method to evaluate the blood status of base-acid balance, which may reflect the effect of exercise intensity on blood buffer system. The paper validate the blood gas analysis as a reliable method for evaluating the total periodical training load of track cyclists.&#x0D; Methods Five male and five female elite track cyclists performed two phases (four weeks per phase) of training respectively. The content included the track specific, strength and aerobic training. The Borg's Rating of Perceived Exertion (RPE) Scale (0-11) was recorded in the ten minutes after each session and calculated the session RPE (sRPE). The total inertial load (TIL) was calculated by sRPE sum from Monday to Thursday. The arterialized capillary blood gas analysis was performed at 7:00 AM on Monday and Friday. The delta value (ΔPH, ΔPCO2, ΔTCO2, ΔHCO3-, ΔBE, ΔPO2, ΔSO2) were calculated by Friday minus Monday. Pearson's linear correlation was applied to calculate the correlation between TIL and delta value. Independent t test was used to test the differences between two genders.&#x0D; Results There was the moderate correlation between TIL with ΔPH and ΔHCO3- (Correlation Coefficient= 0.712 and 0.642 respectively, P&lt;0.01). But other blood gas indexes didn’t show the obvious relationship with TIL (Correlation Coefficient &lt; 0.5). There was no differences for TIL between male and female (3870.1±788.4 vs. 4130.2±716.7, P&gt;.05). Moreover, ΔHCO3- of male was significant more than female by 95.1% (P&lt;0.01). There were significant correlation between TIL and ΔPH for both male and female (Correlation Coefficient= 0.785 and 0.812 respectively, P&lt;0.01), and between TIL and ΔPH for both male and female (Correlation Coefficient= 0.662 and 0.658 respectively, P&lt;0.01).&#x0D; Conclusions The PH value and bicarbonate radical of blood should be sensitive to the high intensity track cycling training, which can be the valid to evaluate the inertial load. However, gender has no influence on evaluating. The oxygen partial pressure and oxygen saturation of blood can not reflect the training load accurately.

Effect of short-term cold-water immersion on muscle pain sensitivity in elite track cyclists

ObjectiveTo determine the effect of short-term cold-water immersion (CWI) on muscle pain sensitivity after maximal anaerobic power training in track cyclists. DesignRepeated measures. SettingUniversity Laboratory. Participants12 elite sprint track cyclists (age 24,75 ± 4,23 years). Main outcome measuresPPT measurements were made on dominant lower extremity (right) in 20 reference points, including anterior thigh muscles, posterior thigh muscles and posterior cuff muscles. PPT levels were measured: 1) before workout, 2) immediately after workout, but before CWI 3) 1 h after CWI and 4) 12 h after CWI. Mean PPT values for each muscle group per participant were calculated for further statistical analysis. ResultsThe average PPT for anterior thigh muscles decreased significantly after effort (p = 0.001) and increased significantly 1 h after CWI (p = 0.048). In posterior thigh muscles PPT decreased significantly after effort (p = 0.014) and increased significantly 1 h and 12 h after CWI (p = 0.045 and p = 0.25 respectively). However, in posterior cuff muscles PPT decreased only after effort (p = 0.001). ConclusionsShort-term repeated sprint exercise appears to affect PPT in track cyclists. This study have reported that CWI in 5 °C for 5 min have had a beneficial effect in minimizing PPT 1 h post repeated maximal sprint training.

Predicting a Power-Duration Curve in Elite Endurance Track Cyclists.

Keywords: Power-duration, performance modelling, track cycling. Introduction A power-duration curve provides coaches and athletes with a snapshot of the workload achievable for any given duration at a single point in time which can then be used to inform training and race strategy depending on the demands of the event. The accuracy of a power-duration curve is important to ensure it can be used to accurately predict performance. This preliminary research aims to determine whether a multi-trial protocol can be used to accurately predict the power duration curve up to the length of 20 minutes (to reflect the longest trial that is usually used) whilst incorporating an accurate prediction of the athlete’s capabilities within the severe exercise domain (typically durations shorter than 60 seconds). Furthermore, this research seeks to explore which trials can be used to most accurately predict the curve with the least amount of trials so that coaches and athletes can use the protocol without impacting heavily on their training schedule. This research has been conducted using elite track cycling endurance athletes who are typically able to achieve greater power outputs within the severe exercise domain than an elite road racing cyclist however they must still demonstrate strong aerobic capabilities to race for longer durations than a track sprint cyclist therefore this research also demonstrates the challenges in predicting a power-duration curve in a novel subject group. Methods A total of 20 (11 male, 9 female) elite track cyclists (defined as having competed for a National Cycling Federation at a major international competition within the last 2 years) aged 22±4 years completed 6 maximal time trials of differing durations (6 seconds(s), 30s, 60s, 360s, 720s, 1200s) over 2 days (3 on each) on a static cycle ergometer (Wattbike, Nottingham UK). The combination of the trials was randomized for each day but the participants always completed the trials in reverse time order. Each trial was completed seated and from a static start using the participants same individual riding positions. Participants were asked to refrain from strenuous activity for 24 hours before the trials and had 30 minutes of off the bike recovery between the 3 trials on each day and 24 hours of recovery between the two testing days to ensure they could perform their best in each trial. The average power output was recorded for each of the 6 trials completed and plotted on a power duration curve (Figure 1). Individual data points were then systematically taken out of the power duration curve to determine whether an accurate prediction could still be achieved with less trials (Figure 2). For each combination of trials, all the known power outputs (6s, 30s, 60s, 360s, 720s,1200s) were compared to the predicted power output. Figure 1. Power-duration curve predicted using 6 maximal time trials over a 2-day period. Figure 2. Power-duration curves predicted from the same data set using 2,3,4 and 6 data points. Results Protocol Key Black All 6 Green 6 360 1200 Yellow 30 360 1200 Red 6 60 Blue 360 1200 Protocol Black Green Yellow Red Blue Time (S) 6 0.0005 0.0005 0.0005 0.0005 0.0005 30 0.0005 0.0005 0.0005 0.0005 0.0005 60 0.0005 0.002 0.0005 0.333 0.0005 360 0.0005 0.0005 0.0005 0.583 0.139 720 0.317 0.544 0.811 0.0005 0.817 1200 0.0005 0.0005 0.0005 0.0005 0.355 Statistical analysis showed there to be only one known duration that could be accurately predicted by the 6 and 3 point protocols and two and three for each of the two point protocols (table 1) although each of these predicted the known points included in them due to an R value of 1.0. Based on this analysis, none of the protocols tested could be used to accurately predict most the known power-duration values. Table 1. Significance values of differences between predicted and actual power output. Limitations The results presented were calculated using an exponential line of best fit with an R value greater than .98 however this meant that the line often under-predicted power values known to be achievable even when that duration was included in the protocol. Further analysis will amend the line of best fit to go through the highest known values. So far, Paired T-tests were used to compare known power values for each duration tested against the predicted value from each protocol however this doesn’t provide a full representation of the power-duration curve, further statistical analysis is needed to determine whether any of the protocols demonstrate no significant difference across the whole line. Â

Relation of teachers’ behaviour and motivation to learning outcomes

One of the athlete‘s body adaptation stimulus is altitude training (from 1600 to 2000 m above sea-level), currently of rather often use. The exceptional aspect of such training is a lack of oxygen, which has a direct impact on tissues oxygen uptake. The body reaction to such lack is a more intense production of hemoglobin in erythrocytes, which gradually increases oxygen supply to muscles. Frequent attending altitude training sessions in conditions of hypoxia has a great impact on development of cyclists ‘aerobic capacity, taking into consideration the fact that lately the distance of cycling track pursuit has been changed from 3 to 4 kilometers; due to this, such abilities of an athlete as aerobic capacity and endurance became of paramount importance. Recently, Lithuanian female track cyclists have reached considerable victories in World and European championships, World cup and Olympic Games. Change of their body and functional capacities, as well as the factors having influence on them are under our deep exploration. Nevertheless, the process of elite track cyclists in altitude conditions has not been enough investigated yet. Analysis of training process, the content of different mesocycles and micro-cycles, as well as deeper investigations of impact of altitude training on athlete‘s body are still missing. The aim of the work was to analyze the impact of altitude training mesocycle on the elite female track cyclists, representatives of track pursuit athletes, body adaptation to training loads at the final stage of preparation for the European championship. Four female cyclists, the members of Lithuanian national track cycling team for 4 km track pursuit, participated in the investigation. At the time of investigation, they were preparing for 2014 European Track championships. The training camp took place in highlands (1600 m above sea-level). The programme of the athletes’ preparation in the highland camp was carried out by three microcycles: introductory, adaptation, increased training load, and average load. At Sport Science Institute of Lithuanian University of Educational Sciences, investigations of the athletes’ body development, physical and functional capacity were performed twice: before the training camp and in three days having returned from it. The results demonstrated that Lithuanian elite female cyclists’ final preparatory stage for 2014 European championships, which took place in highlands, was planned correctly with appropriate organization and implementation. It can be considered as effective due to good athletes’ organism adaptation to training loads. The duration of training camp was 22 days; from them, 16 days were allocated to special training load, while 6 days – to recovery and supercompensation. In total, 24 training sessions were carried out; eight days, one session per day was carried out. Apart from those eight days, during the second daily training session, the athletes applied even method by intensity of recovery or training supporting load. Such programme of preparation and scientific approach gave preconditions for the athletes to participate rather well in European championship, which resulted in bronze medal winning in personal pursuit, as well as to demonstrate third result in team pursuit in qualifications; only unfavorable environmental conditions precluded them from entering the final of four best teams. Training camp of 22 days in highlands conditioned the increase of the female cyclists’ body development indices in body and muscle mass, altogether increasing muscle power in various energy production zones. Blood hemoglobin concentration could be the reason for greater oxygen transporting possibilities and this in turn had influence on aerobic capacity increase straight after the altitude training. Keywords: female cyclists, altitude training, training session, training loads, body and functional capacity. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.15823/sm.2015.8

Critical moments in freestyle BMX/MTB and their impact on prestart conditions

The purpose of this study was to describe critical moments in freestyle competition, analyse mental state of elite freestyle cycling athletes before competition and to evaluate changes of their subjective psychological experiences. In our research we compared results of freestyle cyclists with results of reference group of elite track cyclists. We used semi-structured interviews and two standardized questionnares: SUPSO test and SPARO test. Statistically significant differences were found while comparing SPARO test and SUPSO test results of freestyle cyclists and the reference group. Some of the differences were related to components, that smartly expresses specificity of freestyle cyclists´ mentality. Elite freestyle riders´ general and pre-competition mentality is specific, which is caused by specificity of this extreme cycling discipline. There are numerous factors that impact these athletes during the competition, more than in any other of cycling disciplines. Psychological preparation of freestyle cycling athletes would contribute to improve their performance.