Elite Level Performance Research Articles

Anterior cruciate ligament injuries in elite ski jumping reliably allow return to competition but severely affect future top performance.

In recent years, anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) injuries have been frequently observed in ski jumping. However, available data in this discipline are very scarce. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to investigate whether an ACL injury in elite-level ski jumping limits the performance level after ACL reconstruction (ACLR). Both male and female elite-level ski jumpers from fivenational A-teams who suffered an ACL injury were identified retrospectively by searching available media reports and Fédération Internationale de Ski (FIS) database. World Cup (WC) results and time-out-of-competition before ACL injury and after ACLR were compared. Only athletes who suffered the injury during or after the 2009-2010 season and who participated in at least one WC competition before the injury were included in this study. The level of athletes' performance from two full seasons before until three seasons after the injury was compared. Eighteen elite-level ski jumpers (11 males/seven females) were eligible for the study. All male and fourfemale athletes returned to professional competition after ACLR. One female athlete ended her career due to prolonged recovery and twohave not yet recovered due to a recent injury. The mean return-to-competition (RTC) time was 14.6 months in males and 13.5 months in females. The mean WC placement decreased after the ACL injury: two seasons before injury the mean position was 17.9 ± 11.0 (n = 12), one season before it was 22.4 ± 12.8 (n = 15). After recovery, the mean placement in seasons 1-3 was: 26.4 ± 8.9 (n = 7), 25.7 ± 10.3 (n = 13), 33.6 ± 12.2 (n = 10) (p = 0.008). Among the athletes returning to competition, only sixmales and threefemales reached their preinjury level and only one male and one female (compared to seven males and three females preinjury) reached an individual top-3 placement after ACLR, accounting for less than 10% of podiums compared to preinjury. Only 60% of the professional ski jumpers reached the preinjury level and less than 15% reached a top-3 placement after the ACL injury. These results support the fact that ACL tear during a ski jumping career may be a significant factor limiting high-level performance. In terms of clinical relevance, the findings implicate the need to analyse the reasons of these very low rates of return to elite-level performance, to analyse ACL injury and RTC rates at lower levels of performance and to develop specific prevention strategies in order to reduce the number of ACL injuries in this sport. Level IV.

Научно-методические основы многолетней подготовки высококвалифицированных женщин и девушек-борцов вольным стилем

This article delves into the scientific and methodological underpinnings of the long-term training process for highly qualified women and girls in the realm of freestyle wrestling. Focusing on the unique physiological and psychological aspects of female athletes, the research explores effective training methodologies, periodization strategies, and psychological support systems essential for nurturing elite-level performance. Drawing from the intersection of sports science and gender-specific training, the article provides insights into optimizing long-term athlete development pathways for female freestyle wrestlers. By elucidating the scientific foundations, this work aims to contribute to the advancement of coaching practices and athlete preparation in women's freestyle wrestling.

Aspects of Developmental Pathways toward World-Class Parasport.

The developmental pathways of athletes with a physical disability into world-class parasport are much less researched and understood compared to able-bodied athletes’ participation histories. The purpose of this study was to investigate the developmental pathways of para-athletes toward elite performance. Data from eight athletes with physical disabilities ranked among the top performers in Paralympics, World Championships, and/or European Championships were gathered. Thematic analysis of retrospective semi-structured interviews led to the identification of four themes. The findings showed the importance of early childhood sport-related encounters in a family environment followed by sampling of various organized and coach-led sports throughout the childhood period. The youth sport period was highly heterogenous, albeit with important transitions towards elite-level practice environments, competition, coaching, equipment adaptability and the first intentions of becoming an elite-level athlete. Throughout, significant contributions are attributed towards parents, friends, coaches, athletes, and others, towards fostering a sustained motivational climate focused on improvement and further progress. These findings could provide useful information to tailor developmental models towards elite-level performance in parasport.

Personality Dimensions Drive Achievement Levels of Cricket Players: A Study on the Five-Factor Model

Aim of study. Cricket is considered a mental game among elite level performers. Specific personality traits characterize elite-level endeavors and high-potential athletes. Previous studies on psychological characteristics of cricket players reported that more skilful cricketers deal more consistently and effectively with their emotions and pressure. 
 Therefore the objective of the present study was analysis of personality traits of cricket players at national, state, and district levels with the help of Five-Factor Model. 
 Materials and Methods. Sample size included 120 male subjects (60 batsmen and 60 pace bowlers) recruited from cricket academies/training facilities/competition venues in India. Big-Five Personality Inventory (BFI-44) was utilized to measure personality dimensions. Differences among personality variables at different competition levels of batsmen and pace bowlers were analyzed using One-way MANOVAs. 
 Results. National level pace bowlers scored high on openness (national vs. district, Mean Difference (MD) = 4.25, p < 0.05; national vs. state, MD = 2.75, p < 0.05) and agreeableness (national vs. district, MD = 4.70, p < 0.05; national vs. state, MD = 3.40, p < 0.05). Similarly, national level batsmen scored high on extraversion (national vs. district; MD = 4.350; p < 0.05), agreeableness (national vs. state; MD = 3.70; p < 0.05), and conscientiousness (national ns. district, MD = 3.25, p < 0.05; national vs. state, MD = 3.450, p < 0.05). 
 Conclusions. National level pace bowlers exhibited greater agreeableness and openness whereas similar level batsmen showed greater agreeableness, openness, extraversion, and conscientiousness as compared to lower levels of participation. Since the concept of “Form” demands multi-factorial approach in the game of cricket, other facets of personality such as focus, mental toughness, self-belief, optimism etc. should also be explored for effective talent identification and coaching in cricket.

Reflection-impulsivity in athletes: A cross-sectional and longitudinal investigation

Reflection-impulsivity is a dimension of cognitive or decision-making style. We conducted two quasi-experimental studies to examine reflection-impulsivity in athletes using an information sampling task. In Study 1 (n = 108; Mage = 22.7 ± SDage = 1.42; 50% female), we used a cross-sectional design to compare performance across athletic expertise (super-elite, elite, amateur, novice or non-athlete) and sport type (external-paced or self-paced). In Study 2 (Time 1 n = 106; Mage = 21.32 ± SDage = 5.77; 53% female and Time 2 n = 64; Mage = 21.19 ± SDage = 5.12; 44% female), we examined changes in reflection-impulsivity across a 16-week playing season. Study 1 showed more accurate and more efficient performance as athletic expertise increased. Study 2 revealed better effectiveness and efficiency following sport participation, a 16-week playing season, most notably in elite-level performers. No sport-type differences were noted. Taken together, the studies demonstrate an association between reflection-impulsivity and athletic expertise, while also providing evidence that competitive sports participation leads to efficient decisions based on reflection, without sacrificing accuracy, which is often a consequence of impulsive decision-making.

California Dreaming: Reading the Ski Film as Cli-Fi

California DreamingReading the Ski Film as Cli-Fi Kevin Maier (bio) On a Friday afternoon in October of 1949 Warren Miller packed up his hammer a few minutes early and left a Hollywood construction jobsite to make the thirty-minute drive to a middle school in Pasadena, stopping on the way at the public beach shower to wash off the sawdust and change out of his dungarees into a tweed suit. He set up a reel-to-reel projector he’d bought with a loan from a few surfing buddies, queued up a tape recorder borrowed from his grandmother, and nervously watched as more than eight hundred members of a local ski club shelled out a dollar and took their seats in the stuffy auditorium. The house packed, he took the stage to introduce his film, telling stories about spending the winter living out of a small tear-drop trailer in the parking lot of Idaho’s Sun Valley ski resort, filming his friends with a handheld 8mm camera he’d purchased with his discharge money from the Navy, shooting rabbits for food, and bribing chairlift operators for free rides. Retreating to the back of the auditorium, he continued his narration, cracking jokes and framing what the audience was seeing as the film rolled. Deep and Light was a smash success, launching not just Miller’s sixty-five-year career as a filmmaker but announcing a nascent genre. In a formula Miller and others would refine but change little over the decades, the ski film genre typically includes a series of short segments showcasing the sport’s best athletes on the steep slopes of the world’s best skiing destinations. Released once a year, each film gathers the most exciting footage from the previous season, splicing together segments of action and B-roll that tell stories about individuals, establish the meccas of the sport, and push the [End Page 315] boundaries of athletic performance. The films also typically make a loose argument in favor of moving to the mountains to pursue the ski bum lifestyle. The genre is shaped by post-war California countercultural optimism, but, as we’ll discuss below, the ski film’s seasonal delivery of hope is under threat by our rapidly changing climate regimes. Serving as unofficial historical archives of the sport, ski films capture and shape both athletic progression and the associated off-slope cultures. Sociologists often classify skiing and snowboarding as lifestyle sports, marking their difference from rule-bound, competitive endeavors and noting that within these insider cultures more value is placed on actually “doing it” than on watching. Ski films, then, are directed at an audience of participants and openly aim to shape the worldviews of spectators while also always encouraging them to get out to ski. Values of the American West underlie these messages in the films. Like the siren call of the wild landscapes of the West for harried eastern city dwellers, the playful powder skiing featured in the films is explicitly designed to entice urbanites to mountain towns. Despite regularly featuring shots from around the globe, destinations in the American West get the most attention, especially as places to live. Miller’s films are representative here; he frequently begins a film’s narration with catchphrases like “we’re going on a six-month ski trip, and I’m going to be your guide” and concludes with the exhortation to quit your day job and move to the mountains: “if you don’t do it this year, you’ll be one year older when you do!”1 Figuring mountains as a space for hope and renewal, moreover, the genre taps into the well-established mythology of the West, offering the ski lifestyle as an alternative to city living, where freedom from rigid schedules becomes the ideal. Even as the films have come to focus on increasingly elite-level performance in high-consequence environments, scaling up the athletic feats to a level only a handful of skiers can execute, the laidback, anti–day job posturing is still standard. Such films argue in favor of finding freedom through skiing, translating a midcentury California surfer vibe for the mountains, and shaping a central...

Expertise effects on the perceptual and cognitive tasks of indoor rock climbing.

Experts' cognitive abilities adapt in response to the challenges they face in order to produce elite-level performance. Expert athletes, in particular, must integrate their motor capabilities with their cognitive and perceptual processes. Indoor rock climbers are particularly unique athletes in that much of the challenge they face is to accurately perceive and consolidate multiple movements into manageable action plans. In the current study, we investigated how climbers' level of expertise influenced their perception of action capabilities, visual memory of holds, and memory of planned and performed motor sequences. In Experiment 1, climbers judged their perceived capability to perform single climbing moves and then attempted each movement. Skilled climbers were less confident, but perceived their action capabilities more accurately than less skilled climbers. In Experiment 2, climbers recalled holds on a route, as well as predicted and recalled move sequences before and after climbing, respectively. Expertise was positively associated with visual memory performance as well as planned and recalled motor sequence accuracy. Together, these findings contribute to our knowledge of motor expertise and suggest that motor expert's ability to accurately estimate their action capabilities may underlie complex cognitive processes in their domain of expertise.

Analyzing dependence matrices to investigate relationships between national football league combine event performances

Abstract The National Football League (NFL) Scouting Combine takes place annually for the purpose of allowing NFL teams to evaluate prospects. The battery of six physical tests receives a great deal of attention, and are a focus of team personnel as well as fans of NFL teams. Recently, some have suggested that the current battery of tests should be modified. This work aims to characterize the multivariate dependence structure between tests for Combine prospects, for both typical and elite-level performers, for the purpose of better understanding the current battery of tests before making modifications. Through analysis of two pairwise dependence matrices, one quantifying dependence in the center of the distribution and the other quantifying dependence in the tails of the distribution, this analysis finds that several events show differing levels of association, and that fewer Combine events may be sufficient going forward.

Sport experiences of Division I collegiate athletes and their perceptions of the importance of specialization

The purpose of the current study was to investigate Division I athletes’ prior sport participation and athletes’ perceptions regarding sport specialization. Athletes (N = 1041) completed self-report surveys and indicated that participation in their collegiate sport began around nine years of age (M = 9.10, SD = 3.83). Athletes played a large number of sports in elementary and middle school with participation decreasing during high school. For those athletes who specialized in one sport, specialization occurred typically at 12.5 years of age. In addition, athletes past sport background and perceptions of specialization differed depending on their college sport with some sports (i.e., gymnastics) starting participation and specializing earlier than others (i.e., football, cross country, and track and field). Interestingly, no differences existed in past sport experiences or perceptions of specialization dependent on scholarship status or expected playing status. This study supports prior research that early specialization is not a requirement for elite level performance.

The Relationship Between Deliberate Practice and Performance in Sports

Why are some people more skilled in complex domains than other people? According to one prominent view, individual differences in performance largely reflect individual differences in accumulated amount of deliberate practice. Here, we investigated the relationship between deliberate practice and performance in sports. Overall, deliberate practice accounted for 18% of the variance in sports performance. However, the contribution differed depending on skill level. Most important, deliberate practice accounted for only 1% of the variance in performance among elite-level performers. This finding is inconsistent with the claim that deliberate practice accounts for performance differences even among elite performers. Another major finding was that athletes who reached a high level of skill did not begin their sport earlier in childhood than lower skill athletes. This finding challenges the notion that higher skill performers tend to start in a sport at a younger age than lower skill performers. We conclude that to understand the underpinnings of expertise, researchers must investigate contributions of a broad range of factors, taking into account findings from diverse subdisciplines of psychology (e.g., cognitive psychology, personality psychology) and interdisciplinary areas of research (e.g., sports science).

Physical and energy requirements of competitive swimming events.

The aquatic sports competitions held during the summer Olympic Games include diving, open-water swimming, pool swimming, synchronized swimming, and water polo. Elite-level performance in each of these sports requires rigorous training and practice to develop the appropriate physiological, biomechanical, artistic, and strategic capabilities specific to each sport. Consequently, the daily training plans of these athletes are quite varied both between and within the sports. Common to all aquatic athletes, however, is that daily training and preparation consumes several hours and involves frequent periods of high-intensity exertion. Nutritional support for this high-level training is a critical element of the preparation of these athletes to ensure the energy and nutrient demands of the training and competition are met. In this article, we introduce the fundamental physical requirements of these sports and specifically explore the energetics of human locomotion in water. Subsequent articles in this issue explore the specific nutritional requirements of each aquatic sport. We hope that such exploration will provide a foundation for future investigation of the roles of optimal nutrition in optimizing performance in the aquatic sports.

Career performance trajectories of Olympic swimmers: Benchmarks for talent development

The age-related progression of elite athletes to their career-best performances can provide benchmarks for talent development. The purpose of this study was to model career performance trajectories of Olympic swimmers to develop these benchmarks. We searched the Web for annual best times of swimmers who were top 16 in pool events at the 2008 or 2012 Olympics, from each swimmer's earliest available competitive performance through to 2012. There were 6959 times in the 13 events for each sex, for 683 swimmers, with 10 ± 3 performances per swimmer (mean ± s). Progression to peak performance was tracked with individual quadratic trajectories derived using a mixed linear model that included adjustments for better performance in Olympic years and for the use of full-body polyurethane swimsuits in 2009. Analysis of residuals revealed appropriate fit of quadratic trends to the data. The trajectories provided estimates of age of peak performance and the duration of the age window of trivial improvement and decline around the peak. Men achieved peak performance later than women (24.2 ± 2.1 vs. 22.5 ± 2.4 years), while peak performance occurred at later ages for the shorter distances for both sexes (∼1.5–2.0 years between sprint and distance-event groups). Men and women had a similar duration in the peak-performance window (2.6 ± 1.5 years) and similar progressions to peak performance over four years (2.4 ± 1.2%) and eight years (9.5 ± 4.8%). These data provide performance targets for swimmers aiming to achieve elite-level performance.

Anxiety, movement kinematics, and visual attention in elite-level performers.

We tested the predictions of Attentional Control Theory (ACT) by examining the effect of anxiety on attention control and the subsequent influence on both performance effectiveness and performance efficiency within a perceptual-motor context. A sample (N = 16) of elite shotgun shooters was tested under counterbalanced low (practice) and high (competition) anxiety conditions. A head-mounted, corneal reflection system allowed point of gaze to be calculated in relation to the scene, while motion of the gun was evaluated using markers placed on the barrel which were captured by two stationary cameras and analyzed using optical tracking software. The quiet eye (QE) duration and onset were analyzed along with gun barrel displacement and variability; performance outcome scores (successful vs. unsuccessful) were also recorded. QE (Vickers, 1996) is defined as the final fixation or tracking gaze that is located on a specific location/object in the visual display for a minimum of 100 ms. Longer QE durations have been linked to successful performance in previous research involving aiming tasks. Participants demonstrated shorter quiet eye durations, and less efficient gun motion, along with a decreased performance outcome (fewer successful trials) under high compared with low anxiety conditions. The data support the predictions of ACT with anxiety disrupting control processes such that goal-directed attention was compromised, leading to a significant impairment in performance effectiveness.

Preparing to not be a footballer: higher education and professional sport

In the commercialised and professionalised world of elite sport, issues associated with career pathways and post sporting career options have a particular resonance. In various football codes, an unexpected knock, twist, bend or break can profoundly impact a player's career. In this high risk and high consequence environment, a number of sports entertainment industries have instituted player development and education programmes to educate and prepare elite level performers for life after football. Drawing on Foucault's later work on governmentality and the care of the self, this paper will discuss findings from a research project funded by the Australian Football League (AFL). The paper presents data that suggests that, elite performers are so focused on establishing and prolonging a career as an elite performer, that other aspects of identity are seen as something to be complied with as a consequence of industry expectations. An industry emphasis on higher education raises issues for the sports industries that promote player enrolment in higher education and for the higher education institutions that must manage this lack of engagement.

Regenerative Injection of Elite Athletes with Career-Altering Chronic Groin Pain Who Fail Conservative Treatment

To obtain multisport and long-term outcome data from the use of regenerative injection therapy on career-threatened athletes. Consecutive enrollment of elite performance-limited athletes with chronic groin/abdominal pain who failed a conservative treatment trial. The treatment consisted of monthly injections of 12.5% dextrose in 0.5% lidocaine in abdominal and adductor attachments on the pubis. Injection of the nociceptive source was confirmed by repetition of resistive testing 5 mins after injection. Seventy-five athletes were enrolled. Seventy-two athletes (39 rugby, 29 soccer, and 4 other) completed the minimum two-treatment protocol. Their data revealed a mean groin pain history of 11 (3-60) mos. Average number of treatments received was 3 (1-6). Individual paired t tests for Visual Analog Scale (VAS) of pain with sport (VAS Pain) and Nirschl pain phase scale measured at 0 and an average of 26 (6-73) mos indicated VAS Pain improvement of 82% (P < 10) and Nirschl pain phase scale improvement of 78% (P < 10). Six athletes did not improve following regenerative injection therapy treatment, and the remaining 66 returned to unrestricted sport. Return to unrestricted sport occurred in an average of 3 (1-5) mos. Athletes returned to full elite-level performance in a timely and sustainable manner after regenerative injection therapy using dextrose.

Injuries associated with elite participation in women's rugby over a competitive season: an initial investigation

Objectives. The purpose of this study was to document and analyse injuries sustained over a competitive season by an elite squad of female rugby players. Design. A prospective cohort observational study of an international squad of female rugby players over a competitive season. Setting. Field-based data collection. Participants. Thirty-five players in the England Women's rugby squad 2001–2002. All players provided written informed consent for the collection of personal and injury data relevant for this study. Method. All information relating to injuries sustained was compiled by the medical team using a standard reporting (questionnaire) format. Basic health and personal details (age, height, weight, position played, number of years playing rugby, previous injuries, menstrual cycle information) were collected at the beginning of the season and fitness trainers provided game and training time exposure data. Results. A total of 27 injuries were recorded in 18 players. Only one player sustained three injuries. The most frequent injury by category was as follows: player position (prop, n=9), severity (severe, n=12), phase of play (tackling, n=8), site (knee, n=6), diagnosis (medial collateral ligament or ankle sprain, n=4), and month (January, n=7). Incidence rates per 1000 athletic exposures and 1000 playing hours were 7.2 and 3.6, respectively. Variables that were either significantly different between injured and non-injured players ( t-tests) or associated with injury by chi-squared analysis were age (injured were older), body mass (injured were heavier), and player position (more forwards were injured). Conclusions. These descriptive data provide the first insight into the injuries associated with elite level performance of a women's international rugby team and provide a springboard for future research.

Successful Outcome of Conservative Management of Axillary Vein Thrombosis in an International Basketballer

Axillary vein thrombosis is a relatively uncommon condition in sportspeople other than those undergoing weight training, and to our knowledge this is the first case report in a basketballer. Whether to opt for conservative or surgical management of axillary vein thrombosis remains controversial. We report a successful return to elite level performance in a player with thrombosis managed conservatively