Elite Burials Research Articles

The structure of the community according to the data from the Bronze Age burial ground of Bestamak

The Bestamak burial ground is located in the center of the Turgai trough, which connects the West Siberian and Turanian plains. The data obtained during its study suggests that of all prehistoric sites, closest to Bestamak is the well-known Sintashta largest burial ground (Sintashta mogila; SM). The analysis of combinations of ver-sions of artifacts in the graves of the burial ground shows that the community that formed it developed peacefully without major cataclysms over the lifetime of three generations of leaders. This gives us an opportunity of trying to reconstruct the social aspects of its functioning. This article represents such an attempt. The social heterogeneity of the community can be seen starting from the peculiarities of the burial structures. Some of the members were buried on a special ritual-sacrificial slot of the burial ground, without a moat. Unfortunately, it is unclear whether they formed a separate group during their lifetime or whether the selection was carried out as the moment arose. At the same time, the property qualification was not in effect, and the attempt to exclude the most able-bodied age group can be observed. The latter suggests not a random, but rather purposeful selection of candidates for a spe-cial burial. The absolute predominance of axe-adzes and quiver sets of arrows in male burials demonstrates the leading role of men in the most important aspects that ensured the very possibility of the existence of the commu-nity. The main tools of women's labor (knife, needle and piercer) show that a significant proportion of their activi-ties was sewing, and normally their production-household work was taking place within the settlement. However, in two female burials (graves 10 and 51) quiver sets of arrows were found, and in two (graves 51 and 111) axe-adzes. These findings demonstrate the possibility of involvement of women in almost all aspects of functioning of the community and, accordingly, allow us to assume their rather high social status. Two main social strata can be observed within the community. Elite burials are often marked by a pair of intact horse skeletons placed above the burial chamber. These are considered to be an important feature of the “chariot complex”. Since in our case pairs of horses were found not only in single male burials, but also in single female ones (graves 26 and 35), as well as in the burials of adults with children (graves 20 and 170), it appears we are dealing not just with charioteers them-selves, but rather with the elite (“equestrian”) segment of the community, whose representatives had the right and opportunity to use chariots. Ordinary community members (“shepherds”) did not have the right for a chariot, moreover, their burials did not contain a horse sacrifice. They dealt with small and large cattle in the meantime providing for the needs of the “equestrian” ones. The elite supplied ge-neral civil (sign of a mace), military (sign of a battle ax), and ritual-sacred (sign of a sickle) leaders, as well as those in metal production (sign of a blower nozzle). In the ritual-sacred sphere, it was sometimes possible for a woman to perform the functions of a leader. Initially, in each of these areas, the leaders were separate. At some stage of the development of the community, this changed. In burial 140, the deceased is accompanied by a pair of horses, a chariot, a mace, a battle axe, sickles, other metal items (15), a quiver set of arrows, etc. It appears that during his lifetime he possessed the fullness of civil, military and ritual-sacred power, which was supported by the ability to operate significant, on a community scale, material resources. There is a reason to believe that property differentiation was interconnected with the hierarchy system. The “equestrian” members clearly had the opportunity to consume a larger share of the social product than the “shepherds”.

Ceremonial pectorals from the Tuvan Valley of the kings

The article examines in detail two pectorals from elite burials in Tuva, namely from grave 5 in Arzhan-2 and grave 9 in Chinge-Tey I burial mounds. The images on these ceremonial objects and their morphological features were compared. The general patterns of the ornament and, to some extent, the iconography of the animal figures are extremely similar on both subjects. However, a detailed examination of the pectoral from Chinge-Tey I reveals quite a lot of differences from the Arzhan one. On both pectorals, the animals are located along the spiral-vortex pattern, but oriented in opposite directions. Despite the general similarity of the decor, probably due to the semantics of this item in culture, the animals on the pectorals were executed in a different manner. While on Chinge-Tey I pectoral the loops for passing beads were soldered along the edges of the plate, the loops on the Arzhan pectoral were located on its inner surface and only along the outer edge, but later they were cut off. The comparison reveals that these products certainly had the same semantic loading in the culture of the Central Asia nomads. Other finds in grave 9 of Chinge-Tey I suggest that a male was buried with his trophies obtained in a long-distance military campaign. Accordingly, the ceremonial pectoral may well be brought from afar. Thus, soldered loops with chains at the ends are associated with the Urartu products and are not typical for the nomad ones. It is possible that the mythologeme embedded in these items (perhaps reinterpreted by nomads) should be sought in the areas of agricultural civilizations of the Middle East, but the pectorals themselves, judging by the stable ornamental patterns, were made by craftsmen associated with closer regions, perhaps with Xinjiang. Such assumptions were made earlier in relation to the pectoral from Arzhan-2, but the discovery of another similar attribute in the grave of the Chinge-Tey I burial mound makes the hypothesis of distant western connections of the nomads of Central Asia even more plausible.

Evidence for dynastic succession among early Celtic elites in Central Europe

The early Iron Age (800 to 450 BCE) in France, Germany and Switzerland, known as the ‘West-Hallstattkreis’, stands out as featuring the earliest evidence for supra-regional organization north of the Alps. Often referred to as ‘early Celtic’, suggesting tentative connections to later cultural phenomena, its societal and population structure remain enigmatic. Here we present genomic and isotope data from 31 individuals from this context in southern Germany, dating between 616 and 200 BCE. We identify multiple biologically related groups spanning three elite burials as far as 100 km apart, supported by trans-regional individual mobility inferred from isotope data. These include a close biological relationship between two of the richest burial mounds of the Hallstatt culture. Bayesian modelling points to an avuncular relationship between the two individuals, which may suggest a practice of matrilineal dynastic succession in early Celtic elites. We show that their ancestry is shared on a broad geographic scale from Iberia throughout Central-Eastern Europe, undergoing a decline after the late Iron Age (450 BCE to ~50 CE).

Jewelry, Accessories, and Decorative Elements of Women’s Funeral Costume of the First Half of the 6th Century BCE in the Territory of Forest-Steppe Scythia

Among the antiquities of the archaic period of Forest-Steppe Scythia, a group of elite burials of women, possibly endowed with priestly functions during their lifetime, stands out. Until recently, only two unrobbed burial complexes were known to contain the main burials of women of high social rank, in whose graves golden costume elements were found—primarily expressive details of headdresses. The barrows (kurgans) were discovered at the end of the 19th century when amateur excavations were actively carried out on the right bank of the Dnipro. As a result of research conducted by the author at the Skorobir necropolis (in the area of the Bilsk fortified settlement, on the left bank of the Dnipro), two similar graves were recently discovered, which provided new material that significantly expanded the known geographical distribution of this phenomenon. The materials are closely analogous to the previously discovered elite female burials of the Middle Dnipro (barrow 100 near the village of Syniavka, barrow 35 near the village of Bobrytsa) and allow us to highlight a number of stable elements of the funeral costume of noble women and the sets of objects that complemented them. In this article, we consider the social and cultural significance of female attire in elite burials and delimit the chronological framework of this previously understudied phenomenon within the first half of the 6th century BCE. The new finds offer unprecedented insight into the form and meaning of one type of female headdress which researchers have tried to reconstruct for over a century.

DNA Phenotyping of Remains from Elite Burials of the Khazar Period of Southern Russia

DNA Phenotyping of Remains from Elite Burials of the Khazar Period of Southern Russia

The study of the animal remains from the Neferhotep Complex (17th–20th Dynasty, Valley of the Nobles, Luxor, Egypt)

The Tombs of the Nobles are located in ancient Thebes (modern Luxor, Egypt) and are primarily the site of elite burials. One such is the monumental funerary complex of Neferhotep, which is characterised by several tombs arranged around a central court: TT49, TT187, TT362, TT363, and TT347, which have been already excavated, while TT348 is still closed. They are dated from the end of the XVIII Dynasty (fourteenth–thirteenth century BC) to the Ramessid Period (twelfth–eleventh century BC), with phases of reuse mainly in the Third Intermediate Period and in the Ptolemaic age. From the late eighteenth century, they functioned as storerooms and stables for the houses built above them in the eighteenth, nineteenth, and early twentieth centuries. A large number of artefacts, such as pottery, shabtis, fragments of cartonnage, amulets, offerings have been found, as well as human remains belonging to at least 136 individuals. Among these finds 112 specimens of animal bones have also been attested. The remains seem to belong to three different groups: ancient votive mummies, linked to the cult of the god Amun-Ra; modern domestic animals dated to the modern phases of reuse of the tombs; and scavengers, which entered the tombs in search for food. The zooarchaeological studies complete the multidisciplinary analysis of the Neferhotep complex and provide new information about the use and reuse of the Theban tomb from ancient to modern times.

Three Elite Burials of the Northern Zhou Period from Guyuan in Ningxia, China

The materials of elite burial complexes of the Northern Zhou period (557–581) discovered in the 1980–1990s in the vicinity of Guyuan City in the Ningxia-Hui Autonomous Region of China are analyzed in this article. Due to the epitaphs engraved on stone slabs found inside the tombs, the names of the buried individuals and the exact dates of the complexes are known: the tombs belong to high-ranking officials of Northern Zhou: Yuwen Meng (565), Li Xian (569) and Tian Hong (574). The complexes under consideration demonstrate a high degree of unification of the funeral rite, which is manifested in the similarity of tomb structures, decor and accompanying grave goods. The features of architectural structures and grave goods of these burials continue the traditions of the previous periods of the Sixteen Barbarian States and the Northern Wei. With a general similarity to the synchronous complexes of the Northern Qi (550– 577), the materials of these tombs allow to distinguish specific features of the Northern Zhou funerary practice: the absence of porcelain items, the use of ritual nephrites, and the secular nature of mural paintings. Against the background of the prevailing influence of the Chinese-Han funerary tradition, there are signs of the influence of the steppe (probably Xianbei) funeral and memorial rituals. Prestigious items imported from Iran, Central Asia, Byzantium testify to the significant role of contacts along the Silk Road in the economical and cultural development of Northern Zhou. Despite the available data from written and epigraphic sources, the problem of identifying the ethnicity of the buried has not yet been resolved. However, the version of their non-Chinese origin seems to be the most probable.

The Pazyryk Dwelling

Archaeological fi ndings suggest that the Pazyryk burial chambers made from larch logs replicated dwellings, being a key symbol of culture. Log structures were built on both winter and summer pastures. Parts of them were placed in graves as substitutes for entire houses. Their inner structure corresponded to that of the house. All artifacts in the graves had been used in everyday life, being intrinsically related to the owners’ earthly existence. Felt artifacts functioned in the same way in elite burials and in those of the ordinary community members, although their quality was different. Felt carpets decorating the walls of the Pazyryk leaders’ houses were true works of art, while those found in ordinary burials were simple and rather crude. The typical form of the late 7th–3rd century BC wooden burial chambers in the Altai-Sayan was pyramidal. In the Southern Altai, this form survived until the 1800s–early 1900s in Telengit aboveground burial structures.

DNA Phenotyping of Remains from Elite Burials of the Khazar Period of Southern Russia

Ancient DNA analyses help to solve the problems related to the genogeographic origin and migration patterns of populations. The Khazar Khaganate is a subject of controversy among researchers. Its complex historical development, lack of a sufficient number of artistic and written sources, the disappearance of representatives of Khazar culture leaves open the question of the appearance of the Khazars. DNA phenotyping of bone remains from elite burials of the Khazar period of Southern Russia was carried out with respect to eye color, hair color, skin color, and AB0 blood groups. Eight out of 10 individuals had brown eyes, dark hair (to varying degrees), and a predominantly dark skin during their lifetime. Individuals from two burials had gray-blue eyes, and one individual had blond hair. The most probable AB0 blood group was identified in eight people, of which five blood group 0 (I) group, four had blood group A (II), and one had blood group B (III). The allele frequency distribution was assessed for ten population-specific autosomal markers and suggested high heterogeneity for the ethnogeographic origin of the Khazars examined. The results are evidence for ethnocultural, genetic, and phenotypic diversity of the Khazar Khaganate.

An elite burial of the early Scythian period from the Chinge-Tey I kurgan: preliminary publication and research perspectives

The article summarizes the materials of an elite burial discovered in Tuva in 2022. Grave 9 was the first burial, which was be explored under the ground structure of the Chinge-Tey I mound. A chamber with a transverse ceiling and a wooden floor was preserved at a depth of more than 4 m. It was not touched by robbers. A clay layer was founded between the crushed logs. A young man was buried here in the funeral pose typical for the Aldy-Bel culture. Despite of the total destruction of all organic materials thanks for the location of the golden items, it was possible to trace the decor and size of the man’s funeral suit and status items (pectoral, earring, and comb). The presence of a set of bronze arrowheads preserved part of the leather quiver, which were decorated with the gold overlays. There were found an iron weapon with golden appliqués and a whetstone in the burial. The most unexpected find was a completely preserved glass bowl. This object indicates some cultural relations with the distant western regions of the steppe belt and the centers of civilization. A preliminary analysis of the material allows us to date the grave to the middle of the 6th century BC — the time of transformation of the early Scythian Period traditions.

An elite burial of the Chinge-Tey I kurgan: preliminary analysis of anthropological data

The article presents preliminary results of the analysis of the skeletal remains of an individual buried in the elite grave 9 of the Chinge-Tey I kurgan. According to osteological data the skeleton belongs to a male of 20–25 years old. The hip and lower extremity bones display the periosteal lesions. Despite postmortem destruction and deformation, the skull was reconstructed and measured using rather wide battery of traits. The data on thirteen cranial metric traits were analyzed by means of discriminate canonical analysis using averaged intra-group correlation matrix. To compare the male from grave 9 with other Scythian populations of Tuva, the obtained vector scores were used to calculate the squared Mahalanobis distances (D2).The results of statistical analysis reveal high level of similarity between the morphology of the male skull from the elite grave with other samples of the Aldy-Bel culture. The characteristic morphologic complex includes the largest width of the skull and the least protruding nasal bones comparing to all other samples from Tuva. Among the closest analogies to the Chinge-Tey I skull is the sample from another elite burials of the Aldy-Bel culture, the Arzhan-2 kurgan.

An elite burial of the Early Turkic period from the Upper Irtysh Region

In the second half of the 1st millennium AD, Early Turkic tribes started penetrating the territory of Central Asia, Kazakhstan, and Siberia. Under their influence on the territory of the Upper Irtysh, the process of develop-ment of a Kimek-Kipchak state formation began. The initial stage of this process, reflected in the funeral rite and characteristic elements of the material culture, is barely known. In this paper, materials of the kurgan 1 of the bar-row cemetery of Menovnoye XII, located in the territory of the Upper Irtysh 2.1 km to the southeast of the village of Menovnoye, Tavrichesky district, East Kazakhstan Region, are analysed. Under the mound of the kurgan was a fence with an annex containing a burial of a person, a dog, and two pairs of horses. The central male burial has been robbed. In the sacrificial pit, located south of the grave, there were remains of two horses: one had been laid on the stomach with its legs bent under the body and head to the east; the other, overlaying the first one, had been placed on a banket, laid on the right side with its legs bent under and head to the east. The man was ac-companied by a child lying on the back with the head to the north, placed in a stone box attached to the eastern wall of the fence. The burial of the dog was in a pit placed in the aisle of the western wall of the fence. In the pit of the annex, there were remains of two horses: the complete carcass and the hinder part of the carcass. The grave goods were represented by a leather rendering and parts of a horse harness (iron stirrups and a bone belly buckle). The belts of the horse ammunition were adorned with silver and bronze decorations: badge-triplets, onlays, and buckle tips. To adjust the strain of the check-straps, a bronze buckle with an iron prong was used. Two horses showed traces of saddle bags containing iron adzes. The features of the funeral rituals and analysis of the material remains allow attributing the burials of the kurgan 1 of the Menovnoye XII burial ground to the Early Kimek period of the Turkic epoch within the 7th–8th centuries AD.

The Problem of Associating Elaziğ Korucutepe Elite Burial Chambers with Kurgan Tombs

The Problem of Associating Elaziğ Korucutepe Elite Burial Chambers with Kurgan Tombs

Погребение среднесарматской культуры курганного могильника Песчаный IV: результаты сравнительно-типологического, радиоуглеродного и изотопного исследований

The paper addresses the results of the study of a rich Middle Sarmatian female burial (end of the 1st century BC — first half of the 1st century AD) discovered in the Sal-Manych steppe, on the border between the Rostov Oblast and Kalmykia. The funerary rite and goods are typical for elite burials of the Middle Sarmatian culture (diagonal burial in a large rectangular pit with a recess, two cast bronze cauldrons, clothes with golden elements, imported fibulae, a gem). The authors have conducted the comparative and typological analysis of chronological indicators found among the grave goods, as well as radiocarbon dating, which allowed to narrow down the chronological interval for the burial. Study of strontium (87Sr/86Sr) isotopes ratio from the buried woman’s dental enamel and background samples from the studied region have showed that the Sarmatian woman buried in the Peschany IV barrow group was of local origin. The interdisciplinary approach allowed to reconstruct the life story of the buried woman and her grave goods.

Multimethod characterization of terracotta figurines and lime mortar from the elite burials Shoroon Bumbagar I and II, Mongolia

AbstractThe multi‐analytical approach, including X‐ray fluorescence (XRF), X‐ray diffraction (XRD), Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), and scanning electron microscopy with X‐ray (SEM‐EDX), was applied to terracotta figurines, mural plaster, and local clay sources coming from two elite burials in Mongolia—Shoroon Bumbagar I and Shoroon Bumbagar II—dated to the second half of the VII century AD. The aims of this study were: (1) by comparing the major composition of body samples with those of the ancient Tang sancai kilns to identify the origin of raw materials; and (2) to track changes in the manufacturing technology. Analysis of CaO, Fe2O3, TiO2, and K2O, which were crucial for distinguishing the provenance of red bodies, confirmed the local production of terracotta figurines. Furthermore, this study helped us attain a deeper understanding of the Tang sancai at both Shoroon Bumbagar sites, geographically located on both banks of the Tuul River yet separated in time by a few decades; it suggests the movement of two groups of artisans using different technologies to make Tang sancai locally by incorporating local tastes and traditions.

Horses in Qin mortuary practice: new insights from Emperor Qin Shihuang's mausoleum

The horse played a crucial role in China through the first millennium BC, used both for military advantage and, through incorporation into elite burials, to express social status. Details of how horses were integrated into mortuary contexts during the Qin Empire, however, are poorly understood. Here, the authors present new zooarchaeological data for 24 horses from an accessory pit in Qin Shihuang's mausoleum, indicating that the horses chosen were tall, adult males. These findings provide insights into the selection criteria for animals to be included in the emperor's tomb and invite consideration of questions concerning horse breeds, husbandry practices, and the military and symbolic importance of horses in early imperial China.

DEPICTIONS OF THE HISTORY OF THE ANCIENT HUNGARIAN CEMETERY OF TISZACSOMA IN SCIENTIFIC AND JOURNALISTIC WORKS OF TRANSCARPATHIA

For thousands of years, the territory of modern Transcarpathia was a highway and a place of settlement for nomads who sought their homeland. In this article, the strategic role, which the Upper Tysa region, the northeastern natural geographical gateway to the Carpathian Basin surrounded by mountain meadows, played in the resettlement of the equestrian nomadic people from the east, i.e. the Hungarians, is analyzed. It is well-known, that medieval written sources reporting on the Hungarian conquest, the «Gesta Hungarorum» (Hungarian deeds) in particular, are intertwined with legends and myths, and describe the events of their time (at the turn of the XII–XIII centuries) against the background events that occurred three centuries earlier. Due to some fictional elements and inaccuracies in the chronicles, researchers of the later era questioned the real, historical facts described in these sources as well. For example, Slavic and Hungarian historians have disputed the settlement of Hungarians, the relationship between Slavic natives and settled Hungarians, and the region's affiliation. The study aims to get one step closer to resolving this discussion based on the analysis of the sources, especially the Transcarpathian literature. The article summarizes the results of the archaeological excavations from the XIX century till now that prove that the Hungarians gained their homeland and settled in this area from the end of the IX century. Some of the Hungarian findings in Transcarpathia, mostly from burials, can be considered the oldest artifacts of Hungarian origin found in the Carpathian Basin. Today, not only unique burial sites have been excavated in this region, but also entire cemeteries (Berehove – Mala Hora, Tiszacsoma – Szipahát, from the name of the stream Szipa, near which burials were discovered), most of which can be dated to the end of IX – the first half of the X century. Ancient Hungarian archeological monuments of Transcarpathia form a single unit with a similar group of finds in the Upper Tysa region. Archaeologists have found several elite burials in the Upper Tysa region, including Transcarpathia, suggesting that the Hungarian political center was located in the eastern Carpathian Basin until the middle of the X century, rather than in the Transdanubia region. Ancient Hungarian archeological finds of Transcarpathia, in particular the necropolis of the village of Tiszacsoma, which is in the focus of this article, receive more and more attention in Hungarian and Ukrainian historiography. Archaeologists and historians representing different schools and areas have now come to a common denominator on several important issues, but there is no doubt that further local research is needed to answer the questions that arise.

Funerary textiles in the Avar Period

Early Middle Age textile remains are few in the Carpathian Basin; moreover, most are impregnated by corrosion and poorly preserved. A systematic collection and evaluation of the related findings, however, might provide the research on fashion, commerce, and funerary rites with a valuable contribution. Coffin-related nails, metal fittings, and decorative mounts from Avar Period graves represent an interesting source of information, as their surfaces often preserved remains or imprints of textiles, thus indicating (by their relative positions in the graves) the covering of the coffins with sheets of fabric. This custom was present in Inner Asia, appearing in burials of the Xiongnu and the Chinese, but also in coeval Europe (see, for example, graves of the Frank and Italian elite); besides, examples can also be cited from the ethnographic record. In summary, covering the coffin with sheets or lining them with silk was in practice at many times and places and cannot be linked only to distinct peoples or areas. While the available analogies suggest that the textiles used for funerary purposes were usually expensive, the examples from the Carpathian Basin are not related to elite burials.

НОВЫЕ МАТЕРИАЛЫ АФАНАСЬЕВСКОЙ КУЛЬТУРЫ ИЗ РАСКОПОК МОГИЛЬНИКА КАЗАНОВКА-9 (РЕСПУБЛИКА ХАКАСИЯ)

The article presents results of archaeological excavations of two kurgans belonging to Kazanovka-9 burial ground, made in the Askizsky district of the Republic of Khakassia in 2020. The site represents Afanasiev culture (the 30th -15th centuries BC) and makes a part of bigger grave field cut by the railroad. Mound 2 is almost completely destroyed due to anthropogenic activities. Mound 1 is a partially disturbed elite burial of a man over 55 years old. The vast grave contained rich accompanying artifacts: two vessels, a pot, a stone pestle, two whetstones, and an ocher grinding plate. In the northeastern part of the grave some traces, probably indicating the installation of a wagon were recorded.

Погребения с изделиями из шелка эпохи Золотой Орды: проблемы интерпретации

Introduction. The Golden Horde epoch in the East European steppe was marked, among other things, by the emergence of urban culture in the region. The urban centers and, first of all, the Golden Horde capital in the Lower Volga were the seats of the ruling elite, but also the centers of trade and crafts people coming from all over the places. Around the towns, there were cemeteries with hundreds of burials that were opened and examined by specialists. In the steppe, near the bank of the river, the Golden Horde epoch is represented by a limited number of burials scattered among a variety of kurgan groups. The article aims to examine Golden Horde burials which comprise silk items; these Volga-Manych sites have previously been part of the studies of steppe elite burials. Materials and methods. The grave goods of most sites in question comprised weaponry, ceramics, and animal bones, the traces of funeral feasts, while luxury items were few. Of much interest in this respect are a Volga-Manych series of Golden Horde burials that comprised silk items. According to numerous data of the written sources, silk was equaled to gold in the medieval time. The fact that the Volga-Manych nomads had clothes made of silk was not only the evidence of their high social status and wealth but also a mark that they were the subjects of the Mongolian Empire. Results. In the burials under study, the silk finds were exclusively the clothing and headdress items of the buried. The fabric originated from the eastern (China, Egypt) and western (Byzantium) production centers. Remains of silk products were found both in the burials of men and women. These were both latitudinal-oriented graves, in which the buried were laid with their heads to the west, and meridionally-oriented graves, with the person’s head to the north. According to the present authors, the latter type may be interpreted as a feature characteristic of ethnic Mongolians’ funeral practice, while the former type graves were those of the Polovtsy and other Turkic-speaking groups.