Elephant Group Research Articles

Is Your Elephant Happy? Mahout Identification and Description of Elephant Affective States in Nepal

ABSTRACT The health and welfare of working elephants is directly related to that of their mahout and to the strength and duration of elephant–human bonds. Such bonds are influenced by the ways in which mahouts understand, describe, and respond to elephant communication and dynamic elephant affective states. This study examined how mahout interpretation of elephant communication and affective states influences mahout behavior during interactions and thus influences the development and maintenance of elephant–human working and living relationships. Using in-person, semi-structured interviews with owners and mahouts, biographical and employment data on mahouts and elephants were collected. These interviews were followed by multispecies ethnographic data collection and participant observations among 41 mahouts and 29 elephants. Narrative analysis of mahout interviews, coupled with observations of mahouts and elephants, resulted in the identification of several themes that mahouts felt impacted the elephant–human working relationship, all tied to the development and nurturing of long-term bonds. The first set of themes that emerged is discussed in this paper, which includes “measures of elephant happiness” and “methods of communication.” Identifying these themes was crucial to understanding how humans and elephants build and maintain long-term bonds, as well as determining how these bonds (or their breakage) affect working relationships. Communication and bond building may be key to improving the health, welfare, and working conditions for marginalized groups of humans and elephants employed in tourism practice.

Play contagion in African elephants: The closest, the better

Behavioural contagion is an automatic process through which a behaviour performed by an individual (trigger) is reproduced by an observer (responder) without necessarily replicating the exact motor sequence. It has been linked to inter-individual synchronisation and possibly emotional contagion. Play can convey emotions and enhance social bonding, although its contagiousness is understudied. To verify social play contagion presence and modulating factors, we gathered audio-video data on social play, distance and affiliation on a group of savannah African elephants (15 individuals) at Parque de la Naturaleza de Cabarceno (Cantabria, Spain). Social play was contagious as it was more likely started by uninvolved elephants (within 3-min) in Post-Play Condition (PP) - after that other elephants had started playing - than in Matched-control Condition (MC; no previous play). Social play contagion mostly occurred within 30 m – probably due to elephants’ limited visual acuity – and it was highest between individuals that affiliated the most, with the distance-affiliation interaction having no effect. The most prominent individuals in the social play network were also the most influential in the play contagion network (Eigenvector-centrality measure). Play contagion was socially modulated, thus suggesting it may extend from motor replication to the replication of the underlying affective state.

The use of vocal coordination in male African elephant group departures: evidence of active leadership and consensus.

Group-living animals engage in coordinated vocalizations to depart from a location as a group, and often, to come to a consensus about the direction of movement. Here, we document for the first time, the use of coordinated vocalizations, the "let's go" rumble, in wild male African elephant group departures from a waterhole. We recorded vocalizations and collected behavioral data as known individuals engaged in these vocal bouts during June-July field seasons in 2005, 2007, 2011, and 2017 at Mushara waterhole within Etosha National Park, Namibia. During departure events, we documented which individuals were involved in the calls, the signature structure of each individual's calls, as well as the ordering of callers, the social status of the callers, and those who initiated departure. The "let's go" rumble was previously described in tight-knit family groups to keep the family together during coordinated departures. Male elephants are described as living in loose social groups, making this finding particularly striking. We found that this vocal coordination occurs in groups of closely associated, highly bonded individuals and rarely occurs between looser associates. The three individuals most likely to initiate the "let's go" rumble bouts were all highly socially integrated, and one of these individuals was also the most dominant overall. This finding suggests that more socially integrated individuals might be more likely to initiate, or lead, a close group of associates in the context of leaving the waterhole, just as a high-ranking female would do in a family group. The fact that many individuals were involved in the vocal bouts, and that departure periods could be shorter, longer, or the same amount of time as pre-departure periods, all suggest that there is consensus with regard to the act of leaving, even though the event was triggered by a lead individual.

Effect of the habitat and tusks on trunk grasping techniques in African savannah elephants.

Among tetrapods, grasping is an essential function involved in many vital behaviours. The selective pressures that led to this function were widely investigated in species with prehensile hands and feet. Previous studies namely highlighted a strong effect of item properties but also of the species habitat on manual grasping behaviour. African savannah elephants (Loxodonta africana) are known to display various prehensile abilities and use their trunk in a large diversity of habitats. Composed of muscles and without a rigid structure, the trunk is a muscular hydrostat with great freedom of movement. This multitasking organ is particularly recruited for grasping food items while foraging. Yet, the diet of African savannah elephants varies widely between groups living in different habitats. Moreover, they have tusks alongside the trunk which can assist in grasping behaviours, and their tusk morphologies are known to vary considerably between groups. Therefore, in this study, we investigate the food grasping techniques used by the trunk of two elephant groups that live in different habitats: an arid study site in Etosha National Park in Namibia, and an area with consistent water presence in Kruger National Park in South Africa. We characterised the tusks profiles and compared the grasping techniques and their frequencies of use for different foods. Our results show differences in food-grasping techniques between the two groups. These differences are related to the food item property and tusk profile discrepancies highlighted between the two groups. We suggest that habitat heterogeneity, particularly aridity gaps, may induce these differences. This may reveal an optimisation of grasping types depending on habitat, food size and accessibility, as well as tusk profiles.

MENGGALI NILAI-NILAI BUDAYA YANG TERKANDUNG PADA MOTIF TENUN IKAT DI SUKU ENDE LIO DESA MANULONDO

This study aims to find out what cultural values ​​are contained in the woven woven motifs and how to preserve the cultural values ​​contained in the woven woven motifs in the Ende Lio Tribe, Manulondo Village, Ndona District, Ende Regency. The method used in this research is descriptive qualitative. Data collection techniques using observation, interviews and documentation. Data analysis techniques use techniques to draw conclusions (verification). The results of the study show that in Ende Regency, the Ende Lio tribe in Manulondo Village has various forms of motifs. In the process of making motifs there are also only based on the imagination of the weavers and there are also motifs that have cultural values. motifs that have cultural values, namely the motifs jara mesa (own horse), guns sendetu (a group of elephants), rote rego (broken and broken love) and semba (men's scarves or the oversized shawls of the mosalaki ri'a bewa). These motifs have several values, namely Religious Values, Socio-Cultural Values, Economic Values, and Aesthetic Values. As for the efforts to preserve the woven fabric, namely the collaboration between the government and the local community to create an woven group called the Kapokale woven group. This is so that the younger generation maintains their ancestral cultural heritage so that it does not become extinct in the millennial era like now.

Testing the Effectiveness of the "Smelly" Elephant Repellent in Controlled Experiments in Semi-Captive Asian and African Savanna Elephants.

Crop-raiding by elephants is one of the most prevalent forms of human-elephant conflict and is increasing with the spread of agriculture into wildlife range areas. As the magnitude of conflicts between people and elephants increases across Africa and Asia, mitigating and reducing the impacts of elephant crop-raiding has become a major focus of conservation intervention. In this study, we tested the responses of semi-captive elephants to the "smelly" elephant repellent, a novel olfactory crop-raiding mitigation method. At two trial sites, in Zambia and Thailand, African elephants (Loxodonta africana) and Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) were exposed to the repellent, in order to test whether or not they entered an area protected by the repellent and whether they ate the food provided. The repellent elicited clear reactions from both study groups of elephants compared to control conditions. Generalised linear models revealed that the elephants were more alert, sniffed more, and vocalised more when they encountered the repellent. Although the repellent triggered a response, it did not prevent elephants from entering plots protected by the repellent or from eating crops, unlike in trials conducted with wild elephants. Personality played a role in responses towards the repellent, as the elephants that entered the experimental plots were bolder and more curious individuals. We conclude that, although captive environments provide controlled settings for experimental testing, the ecological validity of testing human-elephant conflict mitigation methods with captive wildlife should be strongly considered. This study also shows that understanding animal behaviour is essential for improving human-elephant coexistence and for designing deterrence mechanisms. Appreciating personality traits in elephants, especially amongst "problem" elephants who have a greater propensity to crop raid, could lead to the design of new mitigation methods designed to target these individuals.

Fecal Metagenomics Study Reveals That a Low-Fiber Diet Drives the Migration of Wild Asian Elephants in Xishuangbanna, China.

The rare northward migration of wild Asian elephants in Xishuangbanna, China, has attracted global attention. Elephant migration is a complex ecological process, and the factors driving this long-distance migration remain elusive. In this study, fresh fecal samples were collected from both captive and wild Asian elephants, along with breastfed calves residing within the Wild Elephant Valley of Xishuangbanna. Our aim was to investigate the relationship between diet, gut microbiota, and migration patterns in Asian elephants through comprehensive metagenomic sequencing analyses. Among the breastfed Asian elephant group, Bacteroidales and Escherichia emerged as the dominant bacterial taxa, while the primary carbohydrate-active enzymes (CAZymes) enriched in this group were GH2, GH20, GH92, GH97, GH38, GH23, and GH43, aligning with their dietary source, namely breast milk. The bacterial taxa enriched in captive Asian elephants (CAEs) were mainly Butyrivibrio, Treponema, and Fibrobacter, and the enriched lignocellulose-degrading enzymes mainly included GH25, GH10, GH9, and cellulase (EC 3.2.1.4). These findings are consistent with the high-fiber diet of captive elephants. In contrast, the main bacterial taxa enriched in wild Asian elephants (WAEs) were Ruminococcus and Eubacterium, and the enriched CAZymes included GH109, GH20, GH33, GH28, GH106, and GH39. The abundance of lignocellulose-degrading bacteria and CAZyme content was low in WAEs, indicating challenges in processing high-fiber foods and explaining the low-fiber diet in this group. These findings suggest that wild elephant herds migrate in search of nutritionally suitable, low-fiber food sources.

Identifying potential measures of stress and disturbance during a captive to wild African elephant reintegration.

There is increasing evidence of compromised welfare for elephants managed in captivity. Should such facilities eventually close, more elephants will need to be rehabilitated and reintegrated into the wild. The goal of such reintegration would be to restore any physical or psychological aspects of the elephant that may have been compromised in captivity, followed by introduction into a free-roaming system where they can interact with other elephants. However, to achieve this goal, the reintegration methods implemented need to be assessed to ensure that welfare remains the priority. The objective of this study was to test whether parameters generally associated with stress and disturbance in African elephants, respond to changes in potentially stressful environmental conditions, assessed at multiple temporal scales ranging from minutes to months. The main changes in environmental conditions that were investigated included the different phases of reintegration of a group of elephants from captivity into the wild. Stress and disturbance related parameters used for comparisons included physiological responses, namely the extent of temporal gland secretions (eTGS) and faecal glucocorticoid metabolite (fGCM) levels as well as behavioural responses, namely the display of stereotype and stress-related behaviours. Results showed that eTGS significantly increased during the initial release of the elephants compared to when in captivity. Stereotypic behaviours were only recorded during the captive phase and immediately ceased after release. Faecal GCM levels spiked in the first year after release before decreasing back to pre-reintegration levels during the third year. These findings indicate that fGCM levels, the eTGS and disturbance related behaviours all proved effective in explaining the changes in stress and disturbance experienced by elephants during the initial years after being reintegrated from captivity into the wild.

Fruit availability and human disturbance influence forest elephant group size

Fruit availability and human disturbance influence forest elephant group size

Habitat Factors that Determine the Movement of Sumatran Elephants at Bukit Barisan Selatan National Park

Until now, conflicts between elephants and the community are still occurring, one of which is in the Bukit Barisan Selatan National Park. This conflict has a negative impact on both elephants and society, so it is necessary to examine the habitat factors that determine the movement of Sumatran elephants. Therefore, the aim of this study is to determine the daily movement of the elephants and to analyze the habitat factors that influence elephant movement. Data was collected in the form of elephant movements in one period which were obtained from the Bukit Barisan Selatan National Park. 1-year results obtained from the GPS stated that there are two groups of elephants, the citra elephant group and the bunga elephant group. The results showed that groups of elephants in Bukit Barisan Selatan National Park have lengths that ranged from 63 – 137 kilometers, with linear, zigzag and circular trajectories, and the frequency of points used is 2-6 repetitions with the time needed per-kilometers ranging from 110 – 518 minutes. Factors that influence elephant movement are track length, frequency of point used, time spent per-kilometers, altitude, slope, distance to settlements, distance to water sources, availability of feed, and availability of scrubbing trees

One World: 24 Hours on Planet Earth by Nicola Davies

Reviewed by: One World: 24 Hours on Planet Earth by Nicola Davies Kate Quealy-Gainer, Editor Davies, Nicola One World: 24 Hours on Planet Earth; illus. by Jenni Desmond. Candlewick, 2023 [40p] Trade ed. ISBN 9781536226133 $18.99 Reviewed from digital galleys R 6-10 yrs On April 21, at one minute to midnight in Greenwich, London, two siblings leap into the air to take a quick jaunt through Earth’s time zones. Jumping locations with a page flip, their first stop is the Arctic Circle, where a polar bear mother and baby cubs are hunting seals. Their next site is Zambia where a group of elephants welcome a newborn elephant, then on to a beach in India as baby sea turtles hatch and sprint toward the ocean. The siblings’ trip continues as midnight chimes, and they swim with whales, zip and zoom with hummingbirds and honeybees, and delight in the breadth of activity happening around the world at any given moment. The focus stays on Earth’s flora and fauna, and Davies points out the necessity of each ecosystem and the human impact on that environment, from the melting homes of polar bears, to the deforestation of gibbon habitats, to the danger of plastic in oceans. The combination of awe and wonder at nature’s beauty along with the various ways it is threatened is a poignant reminder of the caretaking role humans have mostly failed at. Mixed media art has varying textures and richness to match the settings: sweeping painterly strokes and deep jewel tones capture the drama of a breaching humpback whale, while softer dappling and cheerful hues evoke the gentle busyness of a springtime garden. This could make an engaging Earth Day storytime, especially when paired with Davies’ previous work, Emperor of the Ice (BCCB 2/23), or Fleming’s Polar Bear (BCCB 11/22). The book concludes with author and illustrator notes along with a brief note on climate change and potential action items. Copyright © 2023 The Board of Trustees of the University of Illinois

A mixed‐methods assessment of human‐elephant conflict in the Western Okavango Panhandle, Botswana

Abstract Human‐wildlife conflict, where interactions have negative impacts on both people and animals, is complex with underlying drivers and broad ecological and social impacts. From individual incidents and perceptions, to contemporary patterns and long‐term trends, a range of information about human‐wildlife conflict can help understand and manage challenges. However, many studies focus on a single data type or spatiotemporal scale. In the Western Okavango Panhandle in Botswana, people in rural farming communities share and compete for resources with a growing African savanna elephant population. Few previous studies have focused on human‐wildlife interactions in this region. We assessed spatiotemporal trends in human‐elephant conflict using reported conflict incidents (2008–2016), surveys of individual perceptions of conflict encompassing the late 1990s–2016, and detailed field raid assessments from 2016. We found complementary patterns among the data types at different geographic and spatial scales. We found that the number of annual HEC incidents have increased over time, although not evenly across space, with increases primarily in the northern region of the Panhandle. Crop raiding presents both chronic and acute challenges for farmers, with the amount of damage incurred per incident largely dependent on the size of elephant group involved rather than factors within the farmers' control such as guarding or types of crops grown. Our results provide a characterization of contemporary conflict incidents and long‐term trends, despite scarce historical data. Combining the reporting and assessment data with surveyed local ecological knowledge offered a multidimensional understanding of human‐wildlife conflict for a region where this information was lacking. It is an important precursor to effective and collaborative conflict management and mitigation. When possible, this mixed‐methods approach may facilitate understanding for complex human‐wildlife interactions and support the diverse communities and stakeholders involved with conflict‐related challenges. Read the free Plain Language Summary for this article on the Journal blog.

The behaviour and fate of translocated bull African savanna elephants (Loxodonta africana) into a novel environment

AbstractTranslocation of elephants is used to mitigate human‐elephant conflict in Asia and Africa. However, few studies investigate how translocations affect the movements and social behaviour of individuals following their release, which may have important implications for whether translocated animals survive and succeed. Using GPS‐tracking data, we explored movements of five translocated bull elephants (Loxodonta africana) moved to Tsavo, Kenya, and compared them with five resident bull elephants. Position data was collected hourly for 1 year (March 2018–March 2019), and analysed to investigate home range, displacement rates, problematic behaviour and group size. Of the five translocated elephants, three were illegally killed and one continued to break fences and raid crops. Only one elephant stayed away from human settlement. We found group size and composition to be significantly different, with translocated elephants observed in smaller groups with no female elephant interactions. All elephants showed variation in home ranges and displacement rates, but differences were not significant between resident and translocated elephant groups. For future translocations, we recommend careful consideration of elephant social systems, elephant age, timing, release site and proximity to human settlements that might create human‐elephant conflict. This will improve chance for success of such high‐stake and expensive translocations.

ANALISIS KETERSEDIAAN JENIS-JENIS TUMBUHAN PAKAN GAJAH SUMATERA (ELEPHAS MAXIMUS SUMATRANUS) PADA DAERAH JELAJAH GAJAH DI KPHL KOTAAGUNG UTARA

The forest area of the Protected Forest Management Unit (KPHL) of North Kotaagung is part of the home range of the elephant group as well as in the South Bukit Barisan National Park (TNBBS). This study was conducted to determine the composition of vegetation and the availability of elephant feed in the elephant roaming area in North Kotaagung KPHL. This research was conducted in February 2021 at Register 31 KPH Kotaagung Utara, using a combination method, namely a combination of the line method and plotted lines from the end of the area to the opposite end of the area in one type of land cover. The results showed that in the home range of elephants in KPHL Kotaagung Utara most plant species were found in the elephant home range with 21 tree species from a total of 49 plant species in primary forest, while in dry land agricultural vegetation type 26 species were found and in shrubs. In the thicket only 9 plant species from all phases were found. There are 16 species from 13 families that feed elephants. Families Poaceae and Melastomataceae have the highest number of types of feed than others.

Characteristics of social relationships in a group of captive Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) in the elephant village in Thailand

Wild Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) form complex fission–fusion societies centered on matrilineal groups. In captivity, unrelated females remain in the same group and create social relationships. To better understand well-being in captivity, it is important to investigate the social relationships between females. However, to date, little information is available on this topic. The goal of this study was to clarify the social relationships between captive female Asian elephants using social network analysis. Our subjects were 13 captive Asian elephants at the Elephant Study Center in Surin Province, Thailand. We investigated variations in the frequencies of affiliative behaviors between dyads. Individuals that stayed in the group longer tended to play a more central role in terms of group member connections. We found that two individuals played an important role in strengthening connections, and that their removal influenced group cohesion. Our results revealed that individuals that stayed in the group long-term and that had existing relationships with others in the group tended to build better social connections, regardless of their age. In addition, the existence of some young individuals that show frequent affiliative behaviors may be important for bond strength and therefore, overall group cohesion.

Pathology in elephant dentition—two addenda

Parker (2017)* described a pathological condition of molar/alveola abscesses in elephants (Loxodonta africana). Instances cited were 84 in Uganda—all in Murchison Falls National Park (NP)—four single cases from different elephant groups in Kenya and one from Zimbabwe. This note extends those observations to a further six cases from central Mkomasi 1 National Park (then Game Reserve), Tanzania, that were overlooked at the time. The material was obtained during animals culled in 1969 and as described in Parker (2017). They are presented in Table 1. Keywords Abscesses, molars, lower jaw. Mots clés Abcès, molaires, mâchoire inférieure.

Home range and space use by African elephants (Loxodonta africana) in Hwange National Park, Zimbabwe

AbstractThis study examined the African elephant's (Loxodonta africana) seasonal space use and movement using elephant telemetry data in Hwange National Park. The adaptive‐local convex hull (a‐LoCoH) was adopted to understand the elephant movement metrics and home range. Paired t test was used to compare the mean seasonal speed of each group (n = 10) of elephants, while the Wilcoxon signed‐rank test was used to determine differences in the 50% and 90% home range. Results show that mean elephant movement speed significantly differed (t = −3.07, df = , p < 0.01) for all elephant groups across seasons. Moreover, significant differences (W = 3, Z = 2.4973, p < 0.012) were observed between core a‐LoCoH home‐range distributions for the wet and dry seasons. However, no significant differences (W = 10, Z = 1.7838, p > 0.05) were detected between the two seasons for the total (90%) a‐LoCoH ranges. NDVI, Distance to water sources and Slope were positively related with elephant movement speed while Aspect and Distance to roads were negatively related with elephant speed. These findings underscore the importance of resource variability in driving elephant movement and foraging behaviour in a semi‐arid savannah ecosystem.

Age-based variation in calf independence, social behavior and play in a captive population of African elephant calves.

African elephant calves are highly social and their behavioral development depends heavily on interactions with other elephants. Evaluating early social behaviors offers important information that can inform management decisions and maximize individual- and population-level welfare. We use data collected from the population of elephants at the San Diego Zoo Safari Park in Escondido, CA to evaluate developmental trajectories of spatial independence and social behavior in nine elephant calves across a range of ages. As calves aged, the probability of being further from mothers also increased. Tactile interactions were common among calves, with all individuals either initiating or receiving physical touches from other elephants in a large proportion of focal scans. While the probability of initiating tactile interactions tended to decline with increases in calf age, the probability of receiving tactile interactions from other elephants remained invariant with regard to this variable. The social play was also common, occurring in a fifth of all focal scans. While there was evidence that social play tended to decline with increases in calf age, results suggest additional factors may be useful in characterizing patterns in play behavior at the individual level. Calves most frequently engaged in play with individuals of similar age but showed substantial variation in play partner choice. Results of this study suggest that maintaining groups of elephants in captivity with diverse age structure positively contribute to their healthy social development.

Seismic signal analysis for the characterisation of elephant movements in a forest environment

Monitoring of pachyderm movements in the neighbourhood of a forest is an important area of research for mitigation of human-wildlife conflict issues. This paper reports the feasibility study for the detection of elephants using seismic sensors inside a forest environment and further characterisation of the seismic signals. Seismic signals generated during elephant locomotion are analysed for various distances. Frequency analysis of these signals shows an average dominant frequency of 15.80 Hz (±1.03 s.d.) and 16.52 Hz (±1.20 s.d.) in the range of 0 m to ~20 m and 20 m to ~40 m respectively. Based on frequency information of the seismic signal, different filter bands were incorporated and the highest accuracy of detection was achieved corresponding to the filter band of 10–20 Hz. The paper also illustrates the statistical analysis of three signal detection algorithms; short and long time averaging (STA/LTA), amplitude spectrum of Fourier transform (ASFT) and continuous wavelet transform (CWT) as a function of the distance from the sensor and elephant group size. Comparative analysis of the preliminary dataset was carried out where CWT based detection approach shows F1-score improvement of ~28% and ~14% in comparison with STA/LTA and ASFT respectively for a radial distance 0– 20 m whereas, ~2% for a radial distance 20– 40 m from the sensor. Furthermore, CWT outperforms with a detection accuracy of ~90% on the preliminary dataset.

Assessing Raspberry Shake and Boom Sensors for Recording African Elephant Acoustic Vocalizations

Acoustic sensors are increasingly being used in ecological and conservation research, but the choice of sensor can be fraught with trade-offs. In this work we assess the performance of the Raspberry Shake and Boom (RS&B) sensor package for detecting and monitoring African elephants (Loxodonta africana). This is the first documented test of this particular unit for recording animal behavior; the unit was originally designed for detecting tectonic earthquakes and low frequency (<50 Hz) atmospheric acoustics. During a four day deployment in South Africa we tested five RS&B units for recording acoustic and seismic vocalizations generated by a group of African elephants. Our results highlight a varied degree of success in detecting the signals of interest. The acoustic microphone recorded fundamental frequencies of low-frequency (<50 Hz) harmonic vocalizations that were not clearly recorded by more sensitive instruments, but was not able to record higher frequency harmonics due to the low sampling rate (100 Hz). The geophone was not able to consistently record clear seismic waves generated by vocalizations but was able to record higher harmonics. In addition, seismic signals were detected from footsteps of elephants at <50 m distance. We conclude that the RS&B unit currently shows limited potential as a monitoring tool for African elephants and we propose several future directions and deployment strategies to improve the sensitivity of the sensor package.