Elephant Corridors Research Articles

Unearthing calf burials among Asian Elephants Elephas maximus Linnaeus, 1758 (Mammalia: Proboscidea: Elephantidae) in northern Bengal, India

Rampant environmental changes and forest destruction push elephants, both Asian and African, to explore human spaces to fulfil their dietary and ecological requirements and, consequently in shared spaces many ‘novel’ elephant behaviors come into the limelight. Elephant calf burial is reported in African literature but remains absent from the Asian context. We report calf burials by Asian Elephants in the eastern Himalayan floodplains of the northern Bengal landscape. The study area consists of fragmented forests, tea estates, agricultural lands, and military establishments. Tea estates form the majority of elephant corridors, and we explain the burial strategy of elephants in the irrigation drains of tea estates. We present five case reports of calf burials by elephants. We aimed to understand the perimortem strategy and postmortem behavior of the Asian Elephants. The major findings reflect that the carcasses were carried by trunks and legs for a distance before being buried in a ‘legs-upright-position’. We further investigated the underlying reason for calf deaths through postmortem examinations. Direct human intervention was not recorded in any of the five deaths. Through opportunistic observation, digital photography, fieldnotes, and postmortem examination reports, we suggest that the carcasses were buried in an abnormal recumbent style irrespective of the reason for the calf’s death. Through long-term observation, we further report that the elephants in this region clearly avoid the paths where carcasses were buried. We discuss and connect the literature of two distinct elephant species and also compare thanatological studies of other sentient nonhuman species.

All aboard the 'Elephant Express', a practical solution for human-elephant coexistence

One of the most significant challenges for elephant conservation is managing negative interactions that occur where people and elephants use the same space and compete for resources. Human–elephant conflict (HEC) incidents often manifest in direct impacts to humans or elephants. However, some HEC situations result in long-term risk and chronic stress among communities living with elephants. Indirect impacts or opportunity costs, such as people being disadvantaged by the presence of elephants are harder to quantify and are not often addressed. In the eastern Okavango Panhandle, in northern Botswana, 17,500 people share space and resources with 18,000 elephants. Elephants here use distinct, historical corridors on a daily basis, moving from dryland resources to the wetlands of the Okavango Delta. Confrontations with elephants occur most frequently where these elephant corridors cross the main service road in the area, increasing fear among people walking to work, children going to school, parents sending children to school, and the elderly or expectant mothers accessing medical care. This constant fear contributes to chronic stress and can drive negative perceptions towards elephants. A novel intervention has been introduced to help reduce the costs of HEC and foster coexistence, in the Okavango Panhandle area—"The Elephant Express". The bus service was established through a multi-stakeholder collaboration to provide primary school children and medical personnel safe transport across elephant corridors. The complementary bus service have reduced stress from living with elephants, increased attendance and performance in schools, and facilitated improved access to medical care.

Modelling elephant corridors over two decades reveals opportunities for conserving connectivity across a large protected area network.

Protected area (PA) connectivity is pivotal for the persistence of wide-ranging wildlife species, but is challenged by habitat loss and fragmentation. We analyzed habitat suitability and connectivity for the African elephant (Loxodonta africana) across PAs in south-western Tanzania in 2000, 2010, and 2019. We quantified land-use changes through remote sensing data; estimated habitat suitability through aerial survey data, remotely sensed variables and ensemble species distribution models; modelled least-cost corridors; identified the relative importance of each corridor for the connectivity of the PA network and potential bottlenecks over time through circuit theory; and validated corridors through local ecological knowledge and ground wildlife surveys. From 2000 to 2019, cropland increased from 7% to 13% in the region, with an average expansion of 634 km2 per year. Distance from cropland influenced elephant distribution models the most. Despite cropland expansion, the locations of the modelled elephant corridors (n = 10) remained similar throughout the survey period. Based on local ecological knowledge, nine of the modelled corridors were active, whereas one modelled corridor had been inactive since the 1970s. Based on circuit theory, we prioritize three corridors for PA connectivity. Key indicators of corridor quality varied over time, whereas elephant movement through some corridors appears to have become costlier over time. Our results suggest that, over the past two decades, functional connectivity across the surveyed landscape has largely persisted. Beyond providing crucial information for spatial prioritization of conservation actions, our approach highlights the importance of modeling functional connectivity over time and verifying corridor models with ground-truthed data.

Integrating traditional ecological knowledge into habitat restoration: implications for meeting forest restoration challenges

BackgroundTraditional ecological knowledge (TEK) helps tribal communities adapt to socio-ecological changes, improving the long-term sustainability of their livelihood strategies and fostering social–ecological resilience. TEK provides thorough understanding of ecosystem dynamics, as well as how they relate to societal norms, practices, and resource use patterns. The integrity of TEK is often in jeopardy due to changes in belief systems, regional languages, traditional ways of subsistence, and disruption of traditional social–ecological systems. Landscape restoration has the ability to promote self-determination while safeguarding the livelihoods, beliefs, cultural, and biodiversity of indigenous peoples. However, there is a substantial knowledge gap on how TEK might aid ecosystem restoration, particularly in elephant corridors.MethodsThe current study focused on gathering traditional ecological knowledge on the woody tree species from the Dering-Dibru Saikhowa Elephant Corridor using semi-structured interviews, group discussions, and direct observations. The acquired data were applied to heat map cluster analysis and ordination techniques using R software version 4.0.0.ResultsTraditional usage information of 31 tree species utilized for food, fodder, timber, fuelwood, medicinal, and livelihood by local people was gathered. Most of the species utilized locally belonged to the families Combretaceae and Fabaceae. The species were classified into single, double, or multi-uses based on the extent of utilization. Azadirachta indica, Phyllanthus emblica, and Syzygium cumini (six each) had the highest utilization, while Mesua ferrea had the lowest. Chionanthus ramiflorus, Artocarpus heterophyllus, and Dillenia indica were among the plants valuable to wildlife, providing both forage and habitat for a wide variety of birds and animals. Artocarpus heterophyllus, Averrhoa carambola, Mangifera indica, P. emblica, Psidium guajava, and S. cumini were among the plants important for the livelihoods of the local community. Our findings demonstrated that local people were knowledgeable about the plant species to use as pioneer species, such as Bombax ceiba, Albizia lebbeck, D. indica, S. cumini, P. emblica, Lagerstroemia speciosa, and Alstonia scholaris, for habitat restoration in a diverse habitat. We classified the habitat of the enlisted species into different categories, and two clusters (clusters 1 and 2) were identified based on the similarity of woody species in different habitats. We prioritized multiple tree species for eco-restoration using the information collected through TEK. We planted 95,582 saplings on 150 hectares in the Dering-Dibru Saikhowa Elephant Corridors’ degraded habitat patches, which will serve as future reference site for landscape rehabilitation. Out of total saplings planted, 56% of the species were linked to native communities through ethnobotanical uses, as well as providing connectivity and habitat for elephant movement, 16% of all woody species are pioneer species to colonize a degraded habitat, 15% of all woody species are preferred food and foraging by wildlife, and 13% of the species as a source of livelihood for local people, incorporating social, economic, cultural, and biodiversity benefits into the restoration framework.ConclusionThe current study also provides insights how the TEK can assist with aspects of ecological restoration, from reference ecosystem reconstruction and adaptive management through species selection for restoration, monitoring, and evaluation of restoration effectiveness.

Human-elephant conflict in the Sri Lankan dry zone: investigating social and geographical drivers through field-based methods

AbstractHuman-elephant conflict (HEC) in Sri Lanka has escalated over the recent years, with, on average, 300 elephant deaths annually and human casualties of around 90 per year. Employing field-based qualitative methods, this contribution identifies causes and contexts of human-elephant conflict in those parts of the Sri Lankan dry zone most severely affected. We have used field observations as well as semi-structured interviews with experts and affected villagers as primary data collection techniques. The findings show that (a) human-elephant conflicts are the result of land-use decisions, encroachment on elephant corridors, changes in agricultural production systems, and commercialization of land, and that (b) there is a deep division between the environmental knowledge and practices of rural people and the conservation governance provided by government authorities. Furthermore, both traditional and modern mitigation approaches fail to reign in HEC effectively. The insufficient implementation of HEC mitigation measures, and a severe disconnect between the needs and anxieties of rural people and conservation policies, render the management of human-wildlife interactions ineffective. This suggests a need for fundamental reform of elephant conservation policy in Sri Lanka.

Design and Development of a Fog-Assisted Elephant Corridor over a Railway Track

Elephants are one of the largest animals on earth and are found in forests, grasslands and savannahs in the tropical and subtropical regions of Asia and Africa. A country like India, especially the northeastern region, is covered by deep forests and is home to many elephants. Railroads are an effective and inexpensive means of transporting goods and passengers in this region. Due to poor visibility in the forests, collisions between trains and elephants are increasing day by day. In the last ten years, more than 190 elephants died due to train accidents. The most effective solution to this collision problem is to stop the train immediately. To address this sensitive issue, a solution is needed to detect and monitor elephants near railroad tracks and analyze data from the camera trap near the intersection of elephant corridors and railroad tracks. In this paper, we have developed a fog computing-based framework that not only detects and monitors the elephants but also improves the latency, network utilization and execution time. The fog-enabled elephant monitoring system informs the train control system of the existence of elephants in the corridor and a warning light LED flashes near the train tracks. This system is deployed and simulated in the iFogSim simulator and shows improvements in latency, network utilization, and execution time compared to cloud-based infrastructures.

A Phased Approach to Increase Human Tolerance in Elephant Corridors to Link Protected Areas in Southern Mozambique

Pathfinding elephants are moving through human dominated landscapes, often across international boundaries, thereby playing a vital role in connecting protected areas. Their movements are a call to action to not only understand their spatial requirements but to urgently work towards innovative ways to make people’s livelihoods compatible with conservation outcomes so that coexistence and connected landscapes can prevail. We discuss the first three phases of a long-term strategy to conserve elephant corridors whilst incorporating the socio-economic needs of the people that share the landscape with them. We present a comprehensive satellite-tracking history of elephants across two transfrontier conservation areas (TFCA), represented by Great Limpopo- and Lubombo TFCAs and involving four countries (South Africa, Zimbabwe, Mozambique and Eswatini) to flag where linking corridors exist. We use innovative cafeteria-style experiments to understand which elephant-unpalatable plants would offer lucrative alternative income streams to farmers living in human–elephant-conflict hotspots. The most suitable unpalatable plants are chosen based not only on whether they are unpalatable to elephants, but also on their life history traits and growth prerequisites. We consider a combination of potential economic values (food, essential oil, medicinal and bee fodder value) to ensure that selected plants would accommodate changing economic markets. Lastly, we highlight the importance of combining food security measures with ensuring people’s safety by means of deploying rapid-response units. By implementing these three phases as part of a longer-term strategy, we draw closer to ensuring the protection of bioregions to achieve biodiversity objectives at a landscape scale.

Shared Landscapes: Optimising Conservation Strategies Using Tiger and Elephant Sympatry in India

Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) and tigers (Panthera tigris) share the same landscape in India. Elephants, which range over 239,171 km2, occupy 45.5% of the 433,261 km2 habitat that tigers inhabit. Equally, at least 40% of elephant corridors are used by tigers. A shared landscape offers opportunities for careful, integrated management strategies with shared resources. The species are protected differently in India, with tiger reserves being legal entities dedicated to the protection of tigers and their habitats, and Elephant Reserves being management units with no legal standing. With additional disparities in financial supports to tiger reserves—which receive 10 times more money than elephant reserves—it is obvious that the elephant reserves are being treated inequitably. Since the two species coexist in the same landscapes, efforts to protect tigers can help to make up for elephant conservation gaps and optimise the use of conservation resources by tweaking a few management and policy practices. In addition, the overlay of tigers using elephant corridors can efficiently secure habitat linkages for both species.

IMPACT OF COAL MINING, THERMAL PLANTS, ANTHROPOGENIC ACTIVITIES ON WILDLIFE CORRIDORS FOR NATIONAL PARKS AND WILDLIFE SANCTUARIES IN THE STATE OF MADHYA PRADESH, INDIA

Abstract. To the rampant rise in urban settlements and human population, the national parks, wildlife sanctuaries, and national tiger reserves of middle and southern India have been intruded upon by human settlements regularly. These are adjoined by paths called as ‘wildlife corridors’ especially the tiger and elephant corridors which are used as a means for migration. Bandipur and Pench-Satpuda national parks have one such essential pocket of wildlife corridors the Bandipur corridor interconnects the population of 8000 plus elephants between Mysuru and Wayanad in southern India whereas the Pench-Satpuda corridor sustains 120 plus tigers between Pench-Satpuda Tiger Reserve in middle India. To assess this it’s imperative to assess the pattern of wildlife movements, changes in the animal habitats in terms of habitat cluster zones, land-use changes, the onset of human settlements and anthropogenic activities are to be monitored. For this, land use land cover (LULC) changes for these corridors were analyzed across two decades using geospatial and remote sensing technique. The study finds a organized deprivation of dense forests and open forests respectively, thus indicating large-scale destruction. The study also found the net area changes of dense forests and open forests which were diverted for agriculture activities indicating extensive encroachment of forest land for human settlement. The classification was monitored for water bodies that have reduced, indicating shrinkage during the duration under research. The existence of substantial coal deposits in the wildlife corridor and operational coal mining in the proximity of the wildlife corridor is a matter of grave concern which has been highlighted in the research. We examine to identify long-term sustenance and protection of such corridors for preserving the natural habitat. Thus, with such suitability in wildlife monitoring, we can mark an increasing need for adaptable, tenable, and secure wildlife management as illustrated under the Sustainable Development Goals (SDG 15 mentioned under United Nations).

GEOSPATIAL ASSESSMENT OF HUMAN-WILDLIFE-ENVIRONMENT INTERACTIONS FOR SPATIAL DECISION SUPPORT

Abstract. Human-Elephant Conflict (HEC) is a global concern that requires geospatial data collection, analysis and geovisualization for decision support and mitigation. Bull African elephants, (Loxodonata africana), are often responsible for breaking fences, raiding crops and causing economic hardship in local communities in Botswana, Zimbabwe and Zambia. Methods for monitoring and understanding elephant movements are needed to mitigate conflict, find ways for coexistence and secure the future of Africa’s elephant populations. Researchers from academia and conservation organizations are partnering with decision makers and scientists of the Zimbabwe Department of National Park and Wild Life Management (PWMA) to track the movement of 15 bull elephants in the general area of Victoria Falls to analyse spatio-temporal patterns of elephant behaviour related to climatic factors, habitat conditions and changing land uses. Spatial decision support for local famers, resource managers and planners will assist in avoiding agricultural expansion and urban development that coincides with elephant corridors and access to water resources.

Remote sensing of wildlife connectivity networks and priority locations for conservation in the Southern Agricultural Growth Corridor (SAGCOT) in Tanzania

AbstractLand conversion is causing habitat loss and fragmentation worldwide, particularly in Africa, where the proliferation of agricultural development corridors may threaten vital areas for ecological connectivity and wildlife survival. To conserve connectivity, careful landscape planning is necessary, which strongly relies on remotely sensed land cover maps. Here, we present a remote sensing‐based framework that efficiently identifies priority locations for connectivity conservation. We applied the framework in the Kilombero catchment and development cluster of the Southern Agricultural Growth Corridor (SAGCOT) in Tanzania, where new agricultural development projects could act as barriers for connectivity. Using satellite imagery from Sentinel‐1 and 2, we mapped the mixture of mountain and lowland land covers and habitats with an overall accuracy of 75%. Then, we assessed ecological connectivity to predict African elephant corridors and prioritize them in two ways. First, we identified elephant corridors that contribute the most to current landscape connectivity, and second, we identified those whose restoration would significantly enhance landscape functionality and improve the current connectivity level. We mapped 214 potential elephant corridors, identified 43 of them as priority for conservation, and 43 as target for restoration. Our model predicted four already known corridor areas in and around the Kilombero valley floodplain, and other important corridors not yet identified by previous studies in the south of the basin. Priority elephant corridors inside the floodplain showed narrow widths and low permeability, indicating low functionality in the connectivity network. Nevertheless, the abundance of priority corridors for restoration suggests that connectivity could be recovered if the recommended measures are applied during SAGCOT planning and implementation process. Our findings demonstrate the possibilities of combining multispectral and radar data for guiding biodiversity management in development corridors and for assessing ecological connectivity worldwide.

African elephant (Loxodonta africana) select less fragmented landscapes to connect core habitats in human‐dominated landscapes

AbstractAfrican elephants (Loxodonta africana) utilise corridors to access limited resources, that is forage and water scattered across heterogeneous habitats they roam. The existence of small elephant metapopulations depend on the intactness of these corridors to access the scarce resources. Due to the sedentarisation of the previously nomadic Maasai people, elephant corridors have been exposed to increased fragmentation from human‐induced activities across the Amboseli ecosystem in Kenya. In this study, we sought to compare the scale of fragmentation between corridors and their immediate landscapes (noncorridors) in the Amboseli ecosystem, Kenya. We used a Brownian Bridge Movement Model (BBMM) to identify corridors used by elephants from global positioning system (GPS) collar data. The scale of fragmentation between corridors and noncorridors was determined using the effective mesh size fragmentation metric (meff). Our results showed that elephant corridors were significantly less fragmented (Wilcoxon sum rank test: W = 6,121.5, p < 0.05) when compared to the noncorridors. The presence of fragmentation geometries in the corridors remains a major cause of concern for wildlife managers as they have the potential to invade and constrict the existing corridors. Our results underscore the need to extend management of elephant habitats to migration corridors outside protected areas.

Innovative way of human-elephant competition mitigation

Abstract: The negative interaction between humans and elephants is often referred to as conflict, however it is also seen as competition. Human-elephant competition (HEC) is a major protection threat in the fringe villages of the Jaldapara National Park (JPNP) of West Bengal, India. JPNP is facing challenges from the highly populated fringe villages, which exist in elephant corridors. Between 2015 and 2018 there were 12 elephant deaths. During the same period elephants caused 34 human deaths. As per data, most of the elephant interactions occurred in the fringe villages of Madarihat and Jaldapara North Range. Per reports of human deaths, Chekamari and Khairbari villages of Madarihat Range are in the most vulnerable list. Most of the human deaths occurred in the early morning (05.00–06.00 h) and in the evening, when people are going outside for open defecation (OD). On a pilot basis Chekamari and Khairbari villages of Madarihat Range were selected for a door to door household survey with the objective to develop an innovative strategy as a mitigation measure of HEC. The results of the survey show that both villages are tribal and minority population, the socio-economic condition of the people is very poor, on an average 5–6 members are in each household, the source of drinking water is a community well for most of the households, and 50 households are devoid of toilet facilities so automatically the members of those households go outside for OD. Out of the total human deaths, 16 occurred in the Madarihat area; out of these 16 cases, six were from the Chekamari and Khairbari villages. For this reason, between April 2019 to September 2019, with available funds 20 toilets with tube-well were built in the 20 neediest households of these two villages. Due to the communication with the community, behavioural changes were made and their participation for 100% usage of those toilets was assured. After the construction of the toilets until now, no human death cases have been reported.

Likelihood of elephant death risk applying kernel density estimation model along the railway track within biodiversity hotspot of Bhutan–Bengal Himalayan Foothill

The seasonal and occasional movement of wild animals including elephants from one terrestrial habitat to another habitat are very common natural as well as biological habits for the survival of their lives. Around 163 km railway track runs from Siliguri Junction (SGUJ) to Alipurduar Junction (APDJ) within biodiversity hotspot region. According to the report of Forest Department, around 14 prominent and 59 minor elephant corridors have been crisscrossed over the railway track and in between the years 1974 and 2019, nearly 71 elephants are brutally killed due to collision with running trains. The kernel density estimation model is applied to evaluate the spatio-temporal death risk of elephants. To predict the spatial vulnerability or risk of accidental death of elephants, Kernel density estimation analytical algorithms like Bandwidth selection, Intensity, Grid Resolution, Kernel function have been considered. This model considers past accidental deaths data along with secondary data like train speed, fragmentation of elephant habitats, distance of croplands from railway track, human encroachment with electric fencing etc. The anthropogenic activities as well as land use and land cover change have been analysed using Landsat 8 Operational Land Imager—OLI (2019) satellite images and digitally processed by EDRAS IMAGINE 16.5(v16.5.0.852) software. Similarly digital thematic maps have also been prepared on ArcGIS 10.3 platform. Kernel Density Estimation (KDE) intensity (risk) is computed considering the Elephant Death Risk Score (EDRS) as it takes into account of the first and second order properties. Fixed bandwidth is selected for the whole distribution and it is computed by the nearest neighbour distance mean method. On the basis of calculated $$\tau$$ value, (the mean distance between centroids and nearest neighbour index) Kernel Density map is prepared to show the elephant death risk in term of first order properties and second order properties. The result shows very high and high KD (risk) values (0.9799–10.0709) are confined in the eastern and western segments of the SGUJ to APDJ railway line. Therefore, this model helps to take sustainable holistic environmental management of wild animals as well as wild natural habitats in different corners of the globe.

Potentiality of ecotourism in enhancing ethno-zoological values of elephant corridors for mitigating human-elephant conflict in Sri Lanka

Potentiality of ecotourism in enhancing ethno-zoological values of elephant corridors for mitigating human-elephant conflict in Sri Lanka

Elephant space-use is not a good predictor of crop-damage

Elephant crop-damage is a consequence of interactions between people and elephants that impact people's livelihoods and biodiversity conservation efforts. Conflicts between people and elephants usually occur when there is overlap in elephant and human space-use leading to competition for resources. Therefore, understanding space-use patterns by elephants is key to alleviating negative human-elephant interactions. In the eastern Okavango Panhandle (Botswana), >16,000 people share resources with 18,000 elephants. Using data from 20 GPS-collared elephants, we investigated elephant space-use in relation to landscape variables during the day and night throughout the year and during the dry, wet and crop-damage seasons. We compared elephant space-use and crop-damage occurrence during the crop-damage seasons of 2014–2016. We found that elephant space-use was determined primarily by distance to waterholes and areas away from agricultural fields. However, predicting elephant space-use at the large scale was challenging. In particular, during the crop-damage season when the relationship between crop-damage events and elephant distribution was found to be non-linear. This revealed that areas that elephants frequently use might not be good indicators of the likelihood of crop-damage. Based on our findings, we suggest deterring elephants from peoples' crops at the local scale is the most appropriate strategy for reducing elephant impacts on crops, alongside landscape scale interventions. We encourage future studies to use combinations of spatiotemporal methods, as well as practitioners to focus their efforts at the local scale, protecting elephant corridors, and supporting farmers to collaboratively work to decrease elephant crop-loss.

The potential of medicinal and aromatic plants (MAPs) to reduce crop damages by Asian Elephants (Elephas maximus)

In all 13 Asian range countries of the wild Asian elephant (Elephas maximus L.), farmers suffer from crop damages caused by this endangered and highly protected species. As elephants are lured by highly nutritional crop types into agricultural lands, measures to deter or repel them from the high attraction will always be costly and labour intensive. The cultivation of crops, which are less attractive to elephants, yet economically viable for local farmers could lead to a new direction of land-use and income generation in human-elephant conflict areas. In this study, seven medicinal and aromatic plants (MAPs) containing higher amounts of specific plant secondary compounds were explored for their attractiveness to wild Asian elephants against a control of rice (Oryza sativa L.) and maize (Zea mays L.). The results show that chamomile (Matricaria chamomilla L.), coriander (Coriandrum sativum L.), mint (Mentha arvensis L.), basil (Ocimum basilicum L.), turmeric (Curcuma longa L.), lemon grass (Cymbopogon flexuosus (Nees ex Steud.) W. Watson) and citronella (Cymbopogon winterianus Jowitt.) were less attractive and were not consumed by elephants compared to rice. Damages to the MAPs occurred only through trampling, with mint being most prone to being trampled. Other wildlife species, however, were observed to feed on lemon-grass. Long-term learning effects and the eventual palatability of crops with less efficient antifeedants need to be further explored. This study, however, gives first evidence that MAPs bear a high potential for a secure income generation in and close to Asian elephant habitats. Furthermore, the strategic plantation of crops unattractive and attractive to elephants could lead to new land-use strategies and improve functionality of elephant corridors.

Assessment of the Distribution of Herbivores in the Elephant Corridors, Mettupalayam Forest Range, Tamil Nadu, India

Mettupalayam is located at 11.3000°N 76.9500°E. It has an average elevation of 314 metres (MSL). Mettupalayam is situated on the bank of Bhavani River at the foot of the Nilgiri mountains. Population density, distribution pattern of herbivores is very important for conservation as the presence of herbivore population represents the carnivores’ activity of that particular habitat. Both herbivores and carnivore population density are important for management and conserving a particular habitat especially the biodiversity hot spots that sustain the existence of wild animals having a qualified and balanced habitat meeting out the pyramidal quotients that are required for the effective functioning of the bio-system and the flow of energy between the tiers. The line transects and distance sampling methodology was used to estimate population densities of both the carnivores and herbivores in Mettupalayam Forest Range especially in the three elephant corridors, The Jaccanari-Vedar Colony corridor, Kallar-Jaccanari corridor, Kallar- Nellithurai corridor. Hence, considering the potentiality of long term conservation value and existing and growing human population in the Mettupalayam Forest Range it is essential to know the status and distribution pattern of herbivores for conservation management. The aim of this paper was to identify the major herbivore population in the elephant corridors so as to get the overview of the bearing effect of these species, the co-existing interactions and its habitat utilization.

Causes for the Rude Behavior of Elephants in and around the Udawalawe National Park

Sri Lankan elephants (Elphahas maximus maximus) genetically highly migrating sub-species need more and free natural ways to move to find their seasonal ecological niche as natural way of life. As study area, Udawalawe National Park (UNP) is a major elephant range and elephants are considered as key stone species of the park. The objective of this study was to find the causes for the rude behavior of elephants at the UNP. The fieldwork was conducted in east, west and south of the park through observation and interviews with officers and local people in April and December 2014. Data analysis was carried out based on obtained qualitative and quantitative data. The villagers trespass to the park and corridors for number of illegal activities and also to build fences and huts. Besides this, visitors throw stones, hoot vehicle hones and flash their cameras. Due to the above such human activities and with the attraction of fruits and vegetables around the park, at night around 7.00 pm to 1.00 am they feed and trample outside the park especially in March and April. People light crackers, light fires, shout, make noises with tins and coconut shells and sometimes shoot the elephants to chase. With such repeated incidents, the elephants become rude. According to the field study, out of nearly 325 to 400 elephants, three or four elephants throw long logs onto the electric wires and by connecting two wires together they defuse them. Some elephants also push and fell the posts on which the barbed wires are fixed. Another three elephants push the wire with their backs intermittently and then cross the fence. When the elephants find their habitats and corridors blocked by settlements, walls and cultivation, stubborn to change their route, they demolish the walls, eat the crops and trample them as they move on. If anybody happens to encounter the elephants in such a situation, they pitch violently to the ground and trample to death. Elephants have adopted this behavior as their self-defense mechanism because of unethical human practices in and around the park and elephant corridors. Keywords: Rude behaviour, Elephant, Udawala National Park

Locating elephant corridors between Saadani National Park and the Wami-Mbiki Wildlife Management Area, Tanzania

Although more than 40% of Tanzania mainland is managed for nature conservation, protected areas are increasingly becoming isolated because of rapid habitat degradation in the matrix in between. Knowledge on corridors connecting the protected areas is urgently needed. We assessed the area between Saadani National Park and Wami-Mbiki Wildlife Management Area, combining interviews about wildlife occurrences from 20 villages in the area with least-cost landscape modelling with African elephants (Loxodonta africana) as the focal species. The interviews suggested that, in contrast to earlier assumptions, migration of elephants or the presence of one or more independent elephant populations still exists in the unprotected area between Saadani and Wami-Mbiki. A combination of the interview results and multiple least-cost models showed three corridors in the area. The corridor along the Wami river is the most important one, the area between Miono and Mandera was identified as an impeding zone. Management decisions on the wildlife corridors to be protected will require further in-depth research in the three specified corridor zones. Apart from providing insights into elephant movement ecology, the approach may be useful for localizing corridors elsewhere in eastern Africa. Resume Alors que plus de 40% de la superficie de la Tanzanie sont geres dans un but de conservation de la nature, les aires protegees y sont de plus en plus isolees a cause de la degradation rapide des habitats dans la matrice qui les relie. Il faut d'urgence etudier les corridors qui relient entre elles les aires protegees. Nous avons etudie la zone situee entre le PN de Saadani et l'Aire de gestion de la faune sauvage de Wami-Mbiki, combinant des interviews au sujet de la presence de la faune sauvage dans 20 villages de cette zone avec une modelisation a moindre cout du paysage, en utilisant les elephants (Loxodonta africana) comme espece focale. Les interviews ont suggere que, contrairement a des hypotheses precedentes, la migration des elephants existerait encore ou qu'il y aurait encore une ou plusieurs populations independantes presentes dans la partie non protegee comprise entre ces deux aires protegees. Les resultats des interviews et les multiples modeles a moindre cout ont revele l'existence de trois corridors dans la region. Celui qui se trouve le long de la riviere Wami est le plus important, et il apparait que la zone comprise entre Miono et Mandera constituerait une barriere. Les decisions en matiere de gestion des corridors de faune sauvage exigeront d'autres etudes plus approfondies dans les trois corridors identifies. Cette approche ne donnera pas seulement un apercu de l'ecologie des deplacements des elephants, mais elle pourrait aussi etre utile pour localiser d'autres corridors ailleurs en Afrique de l'Est.