Elementary School-aged Girls Research Articles

Prevalence of Pediculus humanus capitis and associated risk factors among elementary school-aged girls in Paveh, West Iran.

Head lice infestation is considered as a common dermatological health problem worldwide. This study was aimed to determine the pediculosis prevalence and associated risk factors among school-aged girls enrolled in public elementary schools of the city of Pave, Kermanshah province, West Iran. The study findings will provide an evidence base, upon which a multifaceted intervention against pediculosis can be formulated and implemented. In this cross-sectional study, 361 elementary school-aged girls were recruited from October to December 2018 at the beginning of the school year. Diagnosis was made by visual inspection. A structured questionnaire was utilized to collect data about past history of infestation and associated factors. A total of 26/361 (7.2%; 95% CI: 4.50-9.90) suffered from pediculosis. Pediculosis was associated with the history of previous infestation (OR: 6.12; 95% CI: 2.68-13.99; p < 0.001), low frequency of bathing (OR: 7.90; 95% CI: 3.36-18.60; p < 0.001), low frequency of hair combing (OR: 3.64; 95% CI: 1.56-8.50; p = 0.004), screening of the student's hair by parents at home (OR: 0.39; 95% CI: 0.19-0.78; p < 0.001) and with the absence of screening by the school health officer in the schools (OR: 7.16; 95% CI: 2.91-17.61; p < 0.001). Synchronized efforts to enhance public knowledge, periodic examination of school-aged children for pediculosis, and proper treatment of infested patients are needed to control the disease in the Iranian elementary schools. The applied strategies in low and middle income countries is suggested to be focused mainly on low cost family-based and school-based initiatives for maximum effectiveness.

Effects of order and sequence of resistance and endurance training on body fat in elementary school-aged girls

The purpose of this study was to analyse the effects of order and sequence of concurrent resistance and endurance training on body fat percentage (BFP) in a large sample of elementary school-aged girls. One hundred and twenty-six healthy girls, aged 10-11 years (10.95 ± 0.48 years), were randomly assigned to six groups to perform different training protocols per week for 8 weeks: Resistance-only (R), Endurance-only (E), Concurrent Distinct Endurance-Resistance (CDER), Concurrent Parallel Endurance-Resistance (CPER), Concurrent Parallel Resistance-Endurance (CPRE), and a Control group (C). In R and E, the subjects performed single sessions of resistance or endurance exercises, respectively (two days per week). In CDER, resistance-endurance training was performed on different days each week (four days per week). CPER and CPRE performed single-session combined endurance-resistance training or combined resistance-endurance training, respectively, each week (two days per week). After an 8-week training period, BFP decreased in all experimental groups (CPER: 13.3%, p< 0.05; CPRE: 13.8%, p<0.001; E: 1.9%, p>0.05; R: 5.0%, p>0.05; and CDER: 5.6%, p>0.05). However, a significant difference was found in CPER and CPRE when compared to CDER, E, and R, indicating that training sequence may influence BFP. All programmes were effective, but CPER and CPRE obtained better results for BFP than CDER, E, or R. The effects of concurrent resistance and endurance training on body fat percentage can be mediated by order and sequence of exercise. These results provide insight into optimization of school-based fat loss exercise programmes in childhood.

Predicting Depression and Anxiety from Oppositional Defiant Disorder Symptoms in Elementary School-Age Girls and Boys with Conduct Problems.

This study investigated the relationship between the three DSM-5 categories of oppositional defiant disorder (ODD) symptoms (irritable mood, defiant behavior, vindictive behavior) and anxiety/depression in girls and boys with conduct problems (CP) while controlling for comorbid child psychopathology at baseline. Data were drawn from an ongoing longitudinal study of 6- to 9-year-old French-Canadian children (N=276; 40.8% girls) receiving special educational services for CP at school and followed for 2years. Using linear regression analysis, the results showed that irritable mood symptoms predicted a higher level of depression and anxiety in girls and boys 2years later, whereas the behavioral symptoms of ODD (e.g., defiant, vindictive symptoms) were linked to lower depression scores. The contribution of ODD symptoms to these predictions, while statistically significant, remained modest. The usefulness of ODD irritable symptoms as a marker for identifying girls and boys with CP who are more vulnerable to developing internalizing problems is discussed.

Executive function and food approach behavior in middle childhood.

Executive function (EF) has long been considered to be a unitary, domain-general cognitive ability. However, recent research suggests differentiating “hot” affective and “cool” cognitive aspects of EF. Yet, findings regarding this two-factor construct are still inconsistent. In particular, the development of this factor structure remains unclear and data on school-aged children is lacking. Furthermore, studies linking EF and overweight or obesity suggest that EF contributes to the regulation of eating behavior. So far, however, the links between EF and eating behavior have rarely been investigated in children and non-clinical populations. First, we examined whether EF can be divided into hot and cool factors or whether they actually correspond to a unitary construct in middle childhood. Second, we examined how hot and cool EF are associated with different eating styles that put children at risk of becoming overweight during development. Hot and cool EF were assessed experimentally in a non-clinical population of 1657 elementary-school children (aged 6–11 years). The “food approach” behavior was rated mainly via parent questionnaires. Findings indicate that hot EF is distinguishable from cool EF. However, only cool EF seems to represent a coherent functional entity, whereas hot EF does not seem to be a homogenous construct. This was true for a younger and an older subgroup of children. Furthermore, different EF components were correlated with eating styles, such as responsiveness to food, desire to drink, and restrained eating in girls but not in boys. This shows that lower levels of EF are not only seen in clinical populations of obese patients but are already associated with food approach styles in a normal population of elementary school-aged girls. Although the direction of effect still has to be clarified, results point to the possibility that EF constitutes a risk factor for eating styles contributing to the development of overweight in the long-term.

Computers and the academic performance of elementary school-aged girls in China's poor communities

Experts agree that computers and computing play an important role in education. Since the 1980s there has been a debate about gender as it relates to computers and education. However, results regarding gender differences concerning computer use in education are not consistent. In particular there is little work done in China on this issue. Therefore, the overall goal of this paper is to demonstrate whether girls and boys can gain equally from computer-based education in China's elementary schools. To do so we analyze results from three randomized field experiments of a Computer Assisted Learning (CAL) program and One Laptop Per Child (OLPC) program. The field experiments are carried out in three kinds of schools: Shannxi rural public schools; Qinghai minority public schools; and Beijing migrant schools. Although CAL and OLPC have been considered cost effective means to improve learning outcomes, it is not known whether the programs impact girls differently than boys. Our analysis shows that, in fact, there were no differences between female and male students in either the improvement in standardized math test scores or Chinese test scores with either the CAL or OLPC programs. Our study suggests that among disadvantaged students in China's rural areas and migrant communities, there is reason to believe that computer based learning can benefit both girls and boys equally. This finding has possible implications for China's ongoing efforts to integrate computers and computing technologies into the nation's underserved schools.

Rote Numeric Skills May Mask Underlying Mathematical Disabilities in Girls With Fragile X Syndrome

Mathematical learning disabilities (MLD) have been reported for elementary school age girls with fragile X syndrome who do not have mental retardation. Yet girls with fragile X demonstrate age-appropriate rote math skills, sometimes outperforming other children with MLD. We examined whether MLD and strengths in rote math skills persist during middle school among girls with fragile X. Middle school children were individually administered the Ranking Proportions Task (RPT), which involves fractions and decimals. Such problems, although difficult for many students, yield different performance profiles between children with versus without MLD. We hypothesized that girls with fragile X would outperform children with MLD on rote skills (e.g., naming decimals) despite conceptual difficulties, regardless of effects of FSIQ. To address the influence of fragile X versus MLD or FSIQ, several comparison groups were included. Children from a normative sample outperformed girls with fragile X on conceptual, but not rote, skills. However, their performance resembled that of children with MLD on conceptual skills, such as identifying equal quantities with different symbols (e.g., 0.5 and 1/2). Fragile X syndrome provides a compelling model of the heterogeneity of MLD, as the associated profile resembles that of both children with or without MLD. In terms of applications to serving girls with fragile X, it is important to consider that efficient rote skills may not only fail to enhance math achievement, they may hinder achievement by masking underlying conceptual deficiencies.

Gender Differences in Peer and Parental Influences: Body Image Disturbance, Self-Worth, and Psychological Functioning in Preadolescent Children

The connections between body image disturbance and psychological functioning have been well established in samples of older adolescent girls and young women. Little is known, however, about body image in younger children. In particular, little is known about possible gender differences in preadolescent children. The current study explored self-reported body image disturbance and psychological functioning in relation to peer and parental influences in 141 elementary school-aged girls and boys aged 8‐11. Results suggest that girls are more concerned about dieting and are more preoccupied with their weight than are boys. Girls also reported a greater drive for thinness and a higher level of family history of eating concerns than did boys. Correlations suggested that girls’ experiences of body image concerns (body dissatisfaction, bulimia, and drive for thinness) were related to a number of factors (such as family history of eating concerns, peer influences, teasing, depression, and global self-worth) whereas boys’ experiences of body image concerns were related to fewer factors. On the basis of these findings, the assessment and treatment of body image concerns in preadolescent children (especially girls) are of great importance. Implications for intervention and prevention programs are discussed.

Gender Style as Form and Content: An Examination of Gender Stereotypes in the Subject Preference of Children's Drawing

Gender-preferred characteristics have been, for the past century, a consistent focus in the study of children's artistic development. However, many of these studies have neglected to interpret data in the context of gender stereotyped content, and this has led to biased assumptions about gender difference in children's drawing. For instance, Kerschensteiner concluded in 1905 that boys' drawing abilities were superior to those of girls. He drew this conclusion based on his analysis of children's ability to render spatial relationships, yet he failed to take into account the different social interests (i.e., fights or flowers) in the drawings of boys and girls, themes that, if examined, might have lead him to different conclusions. Another study that highlights some of the problems concerning research assumptions about gender and the analysis of data is Goodenough's research (1926) on children's drawings of the human figure. Goodenough claimed that elementary school-aged girls are more advanced than boys in their ability to represent the human figure in detail and proportion. While this finding was confirmed by American, English, and Danish investigators in later years (Cox, 1993; Harris, 1963; Koppitz, 1968; Mortensen, 1991; Papadakis, 1989; Willsdon, 1977)), questions are still raised as to whether these abilities stem from biological or psycho-cultural differences in the development of boys and girls. Recent research also argues against Goodenough's findings (Scott, 1981). Had these studies focused on elements of figure gesture drawing other than detail and proportion (elements traditionally associated with girls' drawing), these studies might have concluded that boys' drawings were superior. These examples of past research studies that have used inconsistent criteria for judging and interpreting gender differences in children's drawings are not untypical. More recent investigators have turned their attention away from questions of 'superiority' and 'inferiority' and have begun examining the more subtle nuances of the relationship between gender and style. Research studies agree that girls possess a marked interest in rendering the human figure as an embellished, well-proportioned, portrait often surrounded by a balanced, realistic, natural or domestic environment (Koppitz, 1968; Machover, 1960; Cox, 1979; Majewski, 1978; McNiff, 1981). A masculine approach to the figure has been described as individual, spontaneous, and animated (Burt, 1921; Machover, 1949; Harris, 1963; Koppitz, 1968; Majewski, 1978; Mortensen, 1991). Humans and the environment appear less important to record in detail, as boys have been found to prefer to document figures in imaginary episodes of conflict, humor, fantasy, and action with warriors, monsters, armies, and machines (Duncum, 1989; Feinburg, 1973, 1976, 1979; Lindstrom, 1957; Lark-Horovitz et al., 1967; McCarty, 1924; McNiff, 1981; Wilson W Flannery & Watson 1995). Flannery and Watson argue that boys' drawing content reflects a socialized interest in fantasy and violence that extends beyond their everyday life experience, whereas girls' drawing content appears to be more realistic and tranquil and to relate to their everyday experience. Duncum (1986) suggests gendered content is a reflection of children's developmental preoccupations, as they are challenged to conform to social models. Research has also considered the notion that favored engendered content domains may foster favored tendencies in characteristics. Feinburg (1976) was the first to find that when boys and girls were asked to draw pictures in response to the words fighting and helping, girls portrayed fighting in terms of emotional conflict between friends or family, and helping in terms of personal assistance or care for someone they knew. By contrast, boys portrayed fighting as an indirect aggressive action between violent armies, fantasy creatures and teams, and helping as a hands-on contribution to a production task such as building a skyscraper or constructing a bridge. …

WORKING WITH GIRLS EXPERIENCING LOSS

The authors led an activity therapy group for elementary school aged girls in an ethnically integrated neighborhood for two and one-half years. All of these girls experienced various family losses due to death, divorce, immigration and other disruptions. This paper describes the formation, structure, process and evaluation of the group.

Social Stereotyping of Female Body Image by Elementary School Age Girls

Abstract This study determined if elementary school girls stereotype body images socially as boys do. Subjects were chosen from grades 1–5 by agreement between a rating and a ponderal index designation of body type. Analysis of the assignment of adjectives to female body forms indicated that the ectomorph received favorable adjectives, the mesomorph a fewer number of favorable adjectives, most of which dealt with physical strength characteristics, and the endomorph unfavorable adjectives. These assignments differed from those of boys, in that boys favorably stereotype the mesomorph. The assignment of adjectives by girls was not related to the body build of the subject.