Humoral Elements Research Articles

Role of specific CCAAT/enhancer-binding protein isoforms in intestinal epithelial cells.

Intestinal epithelial cells participate in the acute phase response in response to inflammation. We have shown that acute phase protein genes are induced during intestinal acute phase response, and that the CCAAT/enhancer binding protein family of transcription factors are involved. To address the role of specific C/EBP isoforms, we generated IEC-6 rat intestinal epithelial cell lines expressing different C/EBP isoforms, by retroviral infection. Overexpression of C/EBPalpha p30 and C/EBPdelta led to increases in C/EBPbeta LAP and C/EBPbeta LIP endogenous protein levels, as determined by electrophoretic mobility shift assays and Western blot. Inhibition of C/EBP activity with dominant negative C/EBPs (C/EBPbeta LIP, 3hF, 4hF) decreased glucocorticoid-, cAMP- and IL-1 responsiveness of the endogenous haptoglobin gene, while overexpression of each C/EBP isoform increased the responsiveness to these regulators. In contrast, dominant negative C/EBPs or C/EBP isoforms did not alter the expression of alpha-acid glycoprotein in response to dexamethasone and of C/EBPbeta and C/EBPdelta in response to various regulators as assessed by Northern blot. These data show that the three C/EBP isoforms are involved in the regulation of haptoglobin and that C/EBPbeta, C/EBPdelta, and alpha-acid glycoprotein expression are not induced by C/EBP isoforms in contrast to other cell types. C/EBPbeta LAP-expressing cells showed an inhibition of cell growth characterized by a delay in p27(Kip1) decrease in response to serum and a decrease in cyclin D isoforms and cyclin E protein levels. Finally, C/EBP isoforms interact with the E2F4 transcription factor. Thus, specific C/EBP isoforms are involved in the differential expression of acute phase protein genes in response to hormones and cytokines. Furthermore, C/EBP isoforms may play a role in the control of cell cycle progression.

Host responses against the fish parasitizing ciliate Ichthyophthirius multifiliis

Recent studies have shown that fish are able to mount protective immune responses against various parasites. One of the best characterized parasite–host system in this context is the ciliate Ichthyophthirius multifiliis (Ich) parasitizing a range of freshwater fishes. Both specific and non-specific host defence mechanisms are responsible for the protection of fish against challenge infections with this ciliate. The specific humoral components comprise at least specific antibodies. The non-specific humoral elements included are the alternative complement pathway and probably lectins. Cellular factors involved in the specific response are B-cells and putative T-cells. The non-specific effector cells recognized are various leukocytes. In addition, goblet-cells and mast cells (EGC-cells) may have a function. The NCC-cell (suggested analogue to NK-cells in mammals) seems to play a role in the non-specific response. This well documented protective response in freshwater fishes against Ich has urged the development of anti-parasitic vaccines. Indeed, such products based on formalin killed parasites have been developed and found to offer the vaccinated host a satisfactory protection. However, the collection of parasites for vaccine production is extremely laborious. It involves keeping infected fish due to the fact that in vitro propagation of the parasite is still insufficiently developed. Gaining knowledge of amino acid sequences and its encoding DNA-sequences for the protective antigens (i-antigens) in the parasite was a major breakthrough. That achievement made it possible to produce a recombinant protein in E. coli and preliminary results indicated a certain protection of fish vaccinated with this product. Recent work has shown that the free-living and easily cultivated ciliate Tetrahymena can be transformed and express the i-antigen. This path seems to be promising for future development of vaccines against Ich. A novel approach in fish is the development of DNA-vaccines. Successful DNA-vaccination trials have been conducted in fish against viral infections and the technology also makes it possible to develop a DNA-vaccine against Ich. Other approaches to immuno-protection against Ich have been the use of heterologous vaccines. Thus, both bath and injection vaccination using live or killed (un-transformed) Tetrahymena has been reported to offer treated fish a certain level of protection. Such protection could be explained by non-specific reactions and the efficacy and duration of this vaccination type should be further evaluated.

Elements of humour in selected works of S.M. Burns-Ncamashe

S.M. Burns-Ncamashe's literary works (both poetry and prose) display an extensive employment of humour. This is not surprising as the author himself seems to have been a humorist by nature. The idea of his having been a humorist and the manifestation of this element in his writings are confirmed by Pahl in the introductory part of Burns-Ncamashe (1979), where he points out that Burns-Ncamashe's writings are full of humour and that, wherever Burns-Ncamashe would be, people would not stop laughing because of his humorous nature. It is for the manifestation of this aspect in the literary works of Burns-Ncamashe that the discussion in this paper is undertaken. In this discussion attention will be given to the definition of the concept of humour, its types as well as its significance.

Cytotoxic reactions associated with insect immunity.

Insects and other invertebrates lack the immunoglobulins and adaptive responses that characterize vertebrates yet possess efficient innate immune systems comprised of both cellular and humoral elements (Gillespie et al., 1997; Vilmos and Kurucz, 1998). The evolutionary origins and molecular basis for the various recognitive mechanisms remain among the most intriguing of immunological puzzles at all levels of biological organization (Ratcliffe, 1993; Ottaviani and Franceschi, 1998). Frequently, the first line of defense against potentially invasive organisms are integumental or midgut defenses, which may involve various cytotoxic proteins and antimicrobial peptides synthesized by epidermal cells and transported to the sites of wounding (Brey et al., 1993; Furukawa et al., 1999). Foreign organisms that breach integumental barriers or instead pass through the gut wall to invade the host’s hemocoel encounter reactive blood cells, and an array of both non-specific and specific inducible cytotoxic molecules.KeywordsNitric OxidePhenol OxidaseQuinone MethidesInsect DefensinInsect ImmunityThese keywords were added by machine and not by the authors. This process is experimental and the keywords may be updated as the learning algorithm improves.

J. R. Planche, Frederick Robson, and the Fairy Extravaganza

One of the most overlooked playwrights of Victorian Britain, J. R. Planché, worked throughout his career to adapt French fairy romances to the English stage. Despite general success, his greatest triumph came late in his career, when he first worked with Frederick Robson. The latter's capacity to portray a range of emotions allowed Planché to dramatize both the humorous and disturbing elements of Marie-Catherine d'Aulnoy's "Le nain jaune" ("The Yellow Dwarf") and Marie-Jeanne L'Héritier de Villandon's "L'adroite princesse" ("The Discreet Princess"). Their collaboration lasted less than four years, but pushed Planché's burlesque art to achievements later critics compared to the work of W. S. Gilbert.

Humor and the Theology of Hope

The Isaac narratives contain many rarely noticed elements of humor. While enhancing the reader's enjoyment, humor is also an integral component of a theology of hope in Genesis.

Cytotoxicity and cytotoxic molecules in invertebrates.

Although lacking the components that characterize the acquired immunity systems of vertebrates, invertebrates nevertheless possess effective general innate immune mechanisms which exhibit striking parallels with those of vertebrates. These innate immune systems include both cellular and humoral elements. Invertebrate phagocytes synthesize both oxygen-dependent and oxygen-independent molecules to combat infectious agents. Cytotoxic substances employed by invertebrates include reactive intermediates of oxygen and nitrogen, antimicrobial peptides, lectins, cytokine- and complement-like molecules, and quinoid intermediates of melanin. The signal transduction pathways that are involved in mediating the production of these substances appear to be very similar among animal species, suggesting a common ancestral origin for the innate immune systems.

Interpretation and comprehension of linguistic humour by adolescents with head injury: a group analysis

The aim of the present study was to determine the ability of adolescents with a head injury to interpret and comprehend linguistic humour. Nine adolescents with head injury aged between 12 years 1 month and 15 years 4 months, and nine individually matched adolescents aged between 12 years 1 month and 16 years 1 month were administered ahumour test, astandard language battery, the CELF-3, and the Self-Esteem Index. The test of humour abilities required each subject to recognize and select an explanation from a group of three, as to what made each item funny. Items were based on morphological, semantic and syntactic humour elements. Comparison at a group level demonstrated that adolescents with head injury performed significantly poorer in the interpretation and comprehension of linguistic humour than a group of individually matched peers. Contrary to expectations, a relationship between the level of self-esteem and humour comprehension did not exist. The findings of the present study suggest that further research into the effects of head injury on linguistic humour in adolescents is warranted, particularly from a case-by-case perspective.

Mechanisms of immune regulation in the peripheral nervous system.

The peripheral nervous system (PNS) is a target for heterogenous immune attacks mediated by different components of the systemic immune compartment. T cells, B cells, and macrophages can interact with endogenous, partially immune-competent glial cells and contribute to local inflammation. Cellular and humoral immune functions of Schwann cells have been well characterized in vitro. In addition, the interaction of the humoral and cellular immune system with the cellular and extracellular components in the PNS may determine the extent of tissue inflammation and repair processes such as remyelination and neuronal outgrowth. The animal model experimental autoimmune neuritis (EAN) allows direct monitoring of these immune responses in vivo. In EAN contributions to regulate autoimmunity in the PNS are made by adhesion molecules and by cytokines that orchestrate cellular interactions. The PNS has a significant potential to eliminate T cell inflammation via apoptosis, which is almost lacking in other tissues such as muscle and skin. In vitro experiments suggest different scenarios how specific cellular and humoral elements in the PNS may sensitize autoreactive T cells for apoptosis in vivo. Interestingly several conventional and novel immunotherapeutic approaches like glucocorticosteroids and high-dose antigen therapy induce T cell apoptosis in situ in EAN. A better understanding of immune regulation and its failure in the PNS may help to develop improved, more specific immunotherapies.

Human osteoclast ontogeny and pathological bone resorption.

Monocytes and macrophages are capable of degrading both the mineral and organic components of bone and are known to secrete local factors which stimulate host osteoclastic bone resorption. Recent studies have shown that monocytes and macrophages, including those isolated from neoplastic and inflammatory lesions, can also be induced to differentiate into cells that show all the cytochemical and functional characteristics of mature osteoclasts, including lacunar bone resorption. Monocyte/macrophage-osteoclast differentiation occurs in the presence of osteoblasts/bone stromal cells (which express osteoclast differentiation factor) and macrophage-colony stimulating factor and is inhibited by osteoprotegerin. Various systemic hormones and local factors (e.g. cytokines, growth factors, prostaglandins) modulate osteoclast formation by controlling these cellular and humoral elements. Various pathological lesions of bone and joint (e.g. carcinomatous metastases, arthritis, aseptic loosening) are associated with osteolysis. These lesions generally contain a chronic inflammatory infiltrate in which macrophages form a significant fraction. One cellular mechanism whereby pathological bone resorption may be effected is through generation of increased numbers of bone-resorbing osteoclasts from macrophages. Production of humoral factors which stimulate mononuclear phagocyte-osteoclast differentiation and osteoclast activity is also likely to influence the extent of pathological bone resorption.

"...the Wit of a Woman It Comes in Handy,/At Times in an Hour of Need": Some Comic Ballads of Married Life

Of the small number of comic ballads included in the last volume of The English and Scottish Popular Ballads (Child 1882-98: nos. 273-283, 290), several (including those to be discussed in detail here) have enjoyed considerable popularity with traditional singers. It is also the case that this small body of material is somewhat reinforced by the presence of comic or humorous elements elsewhere in the ballad repertoire (Nicolaisen 1992; Roberts 1951; Smith 1923). It is even conceivable that the seeming neglect that Child accorded the comic ballads could have had as much to do with failing health and the desire to see the edition completed as with a conscious disdain for this kind of song. Howbeit, whilst there are only a relative handful of comic items in the canons of Child (1882-98) and even of Laws (1957; 1964), there are actually substantial numbers of humorous narrative songs extant elsewhere, especially on broadsides. By studying closely a fairly small number of comic ballads from tradition, it is possible to establish connections both with other parts of the Child corpus, and with this larger body of anglophone comic balladry, and so to contribute to the (scholarly) rehabilitation of the comic ballads (following Buchan 1992). The Child and Child-type ballads considered here, which are all concerned in one way or another with facets of married life, are therefore offered as paradigms and not as paragons. Fortunately, the daunting mass of humorous narrative songs has been intensively studied by German scholars who have not only analysed and classified them, but have also drawn attention to generic and geographical affinities of these anglophone comic ballads, or Schwank songs or ballads as they are termed in the absence of an equally precise English phrase (Roth 1977; 1980; Wehse 1975; 1979; 1980; 1982; 1985). Schwank ballads can be defined in relation to their structure; and Wehse offers a couple of useful summary definitions in English: schwank is a humorous narrative of one or more episodes. The dramatic conflict reaches its height towards the end of the tale or song culminating in a punchline-a surprising or expected solution, usually the inversion of the initial situation, evoking laughter. In the present tradition the genre is often reduced to ajoke. This genre, however, gives a mere skeleton of a story, whereas in a schwank the action is leisurely built up until it reaches its climax. The emphasis of a schwank is in the telling of the story and the action preceding the final solution, on the development of the events and not so much on the final comic surprise. (Wehse 1982:133; also 1975:326) the narration of a humorous event working toward a comical conflict of climax such as a punch line and/or a surprising reversal of situation. This structure can be compared to a game, in which two rivals try to get the better of each other. The superior position of one or the other opponent may be reversed once or several times, and the person expected to win the game is thus rendered inferior. The reversal is caused by such devices as ruses and witty retorts. (Wehse 1980:223) Classification of the ballads then focuses upon the different thematic areas of conflict with which they deal (Wehse 1979; 1982). The broad subject areas include courtship; matrimony and family; ruses (which include outwitting the Devil); stupid or naive actions; humorous narratives concerning the clergy and religion; animal stories and fables; and encounters between royalty or nobility and ordinary citizens. There are, of course, subdivisions within these categories; but in fact a substantial majority of the songs are concerned with amatory, erotic, and marital situations. The ballads deal with seemingly everyday matters, and to an important extent with characters from the middle ranks of society rather than the more aristocratic milieux often associated with the Anglo-Scottish classical ballads. At the same time, the Schwank structure, centring upon oppositional conflicts or confrontations, means that great importance attaches to different kinds of ability and cleverness among their characters. …

Interpretation and comprehension of linguistic humour by adolescents with head injury: a case-by-case analysis

The aim of the present study was to examine the linguistic humour abilities of a group of adolescents with head injury on a case-by-case basis. Nine adolescents with head injury aged between 12 years 1 month and 15 years 4 months, and nine individually matched adolescents aged between 12 years 1 month and 16 years 1 month were administered a humour test, a standard language battery, the CELF-3, and the Self-Esteem Index. The test of humour abilities required each subject to recognize and select an explanation from a group of three, as to what made each item funny. Items were based on morphological, semantic and syntactic humour elements. Examination of the individual profiles each subject with head injury illustrated the existence of variability between subjects representing three main trends: reduced humour abilities together with below average language skills; intact humour and language abilities in the presence of mild head injury; and impaired humour ability with concurrent language skills that are within normal limits. This third pattern supports previous studies, which have documented the occurrence of high-level language impairment while language abilities are intact. The present study emphasized the importance of investigating the abilities of individuals who have had head injury in childhood, within a developmental framework. This perspective serves to highlight the context of contributing aspects that impact on future language development and recovery of injury, such as the time that the injury occurred in a child's development, in addition to injury severity and the time that has elapsed post-injury.

The advertising of services: what is an appropriate role for humor?

The use of humor is quite prevalent in the promotion of US goods and services. Estimated expenditures on humorous advertisements are in the billions and a majority of advertisements may contain some humorous elements. Unfortunately, not much attention has been focused specifically on the role of humor in the advertising of services. By using the available humor‐related literature and synthesizing it with services marketing literature, a set of logically supported propositions was determined. Specifically, propositions are offered regarding the ability of humor to attract attention, increase comprehension, effect source credibility, and enhance liking. In addition, audience factors, the nature of the service product, the superiority of humor over non‐humor, the relatedness of humor to the product and the extension of humor into the international marketplace are examined.

Insulin-like growth factor I is a growth-promoting factor for Leishmania promastigotes and amastigotes.

Leishmaniases are diseases caused by protozoa of the genus Leishmania that affect more than 20 million people in the world. The initial phase of the infection is fundamental for either the progression or control of the disease. The Leishmania parasites are injected in the skin as promastigotes and then, after been phagocytized by the host macrophages, rapidly transform into amastigotes. In this phase different nonspecific cellular and humoral elements participate. We have shown previously that insulin-like growth factor (IGF)-I that is constitutively present in the skin induces growth of Leishmania promastigotes. In the present paper we show further evidence for the importance of this factor: (i) IGF-I also can induce a growth response in Leishmania (Leishmania) mexicana amastigotes; (ii) IGF-I binds specifically to a putative single-site receptor on both promastigotes and amastigotes; (iii) IGF-I induces a rapid tyrosine phosphorylation of parasite proteins with different molecular mass in promastigotes and amastigotes of L. (L.) mexicana; and, finally, (iv) the cutaneous lesion in the mice when challenged by IGF-I-preactivated Leishmania (Viannia) panamensis is increased significantly because of inflammatory process and growth of parasites. We thus suggest that IGF-I is another important host factor participating in the Leishmania-host interplay in the early stage during the establishment of the infection and presumably also in the later stages.

Creative Pseudo-Reality as a Defensive Factor in Jewish Wit: A Dialectical Perspective

Theoretical dynamics of ethnic humor are juxtaposed with Jewish wit, showing that there is a distinct factor which operates in the Jewish humor response to oppression. Drawing from Ziv's (1986) rich anthology of research and case studies, this factor is conceptualized as creative pseudo-reality. It is hypothesized that Jewish wit features this element of self-effacing humor besides the factors which it shares with the ethnic humor of other marginal groups. The implicit ability to construct a perceived environment which is bound neither to reason nor to logic, is seen as the last line of defense for an oppressed minority whose other options have been denied. Irony and triumph, suggested as key elements in this factor, are illustrated in annotated stereotypical excerpts of Jewish wit. Throughout the analysis, the dialectic principle—maintaining the co-existence of inconsistent dynamics—is highlighted in contrast to the reductionistic either/or approach commonplace in psychological and sociological discourse.

The history of bone-marrow transplantation

As it influenced so much else this century, so the atomic bomb essentially marked the beginnings of interest in bone-marrow transplantation. The first detonation of a nuclear device in New Mexico in 1945, and the subsequent effects of the atomic bomb on the populations of Hiroslaima and Nagasaki provoked great and urgent interest in the effects of irradiation. While studying the effects of lethal irradiation in mice, Jacobson (1949)’ discovered a protective effect of splenic shielding: the spleen in mice contains haemopoietic tissue. He went on to demonstrate a similar protective effect by shielding the femur (1951).2 A year later, Lorenz showed that this protection could also be conferred by intravenous bonemarrow infusion.3 At first, it was thought that the radiation protection was due to humoral elements in the syngeneic bone marrow. Over the next five years, however, a number of investigators demonstrated that, not only was the protection due to cellular elements, but that these donor cells effectively repopulated the irradiated marrow.cw.“9 An animal whose haemopoietic system was derived from another animal was termed a ‘radiation chimera’.’ In 1958, a radiation accident occurred in Vinca, Yugoslavia, and six physicists developed radiationinduced aplasia. Although one died, Mathe” described the successful infusion of allogeneic bone marrow into the remaining five, and subsequently

Pulmonary reperfusion injury : A comparison of bubble and membrane oxygenators

Twenty cases of single valve replacement or atrial septal defect repair who underwent elective corrective surgery using either membrane (Capiox E) oxygenator (n=10) or bubble (Bentley 10™) oxygenator (n=10) were studied for the activation of cellular and humoral elements in blood. The bubble oxygenator was found to have more damaging effect of platelet sequestration and pulmonary sequestration of leucocytes. The C3c and’ c4 levels were found to be equally decreased in both groups. Both groups however showed no significant pneumocyte changes and there was no adverse effect on the postoperative clinical outcome in both groups.

Play It Again, Sam; Viola Solo (1989)

The particularly playing alone, has done well in recent additions to a number of publisher's catalogues. Milton Babbitt's Play It Again, Sam is the composer's first addition to the viola's solo repertory since his monumental Composition for Viola and Piano of 1950. The title of the new work is a reference to its dedicatee, Samuel Rhodes, a compliment Rhodes is reported to have repaid at the first performance by taking the title as a literal direction. The new work offers a satisfying romp through Babbitt's tonal world. Many features of this world are recognizable from the composer's earlier works, as, for example, the rapid fluctuation of both dynamic and register or a certain conservatism in choices of instrumental color. The technical demands of the work are of surpassing difficulty, even for violists with a smaller or cutaway instrument to make the frequent high register writing manageable, in part because Babbitt notates the literally impossible as a standard toward which the performer is encouraged to reach rather than as a goal that can be readily attained. To be sure that a few misprints do not render the impossible incomprehensible, they are corrected in a sheet of errata enclosed by the publisher. An element of good humor and high spirits pervades this music: I think this is the beginning of a beautiful friendship. Milton Barnes's Lamentations of Jeremiah was originally composed for cello in 1959 and later transcribed for viola, a short biographical note informs us, and is based on the Rembrandt painting of Jeremiah pondering the destruction of Jerusalem. Barnes adopts a consciously Jewish style for this work, as he has in a number of other works: we can be grateful that styles have again caught up with the old and rendered Barnes's stylistic stance, once labeled old-fashioned for its concern with tonal and tuneful writing, simply one more fashion choice. The work projects its mood of lamentation powerfully and is superbly written for the instrument, at a level of technical difficulty surmountable by the average college student. The few fingerings and bowings that have been provided are helpful, although it would have been nice had they not been anonymous. This work is a part of Jaymar's Canadian Chamber Music series: we look forward to other works from the rich vein of Canadian music so infrequently tapped abroad. The use of recycled paper in this edition is a feature particularly to be lauded. Miroslav Miletic's Monodia per viola sola is a work that will appeal to a wide variety of performers and audiences. It is written in a conservative idiom that makes one wonder what J. S. Bach would have been like as a minimalist. It betrays its Eastern European origin only in a few details of the writing, as, for example, the glissando thirds articulated in spiccato, a favorite device of Grazyna Bacewicz. The pages are well laid out and generous as to spacing, and the autography is clear and easy to read. There appear to be few errors, although one hopes that the second half of the eighth measure of page 14 is one such: as written, the passage is barely playable, but assuming that the sequence of which this half-measure forms a part is to be carried through, substituting d' for c' and vice versa should make an eminently playable alternative without altering the musical content in any significant way. This is music that casts a spell without apparent effort and without entirely giving up its secrets: never a bad quality in any piece. Bruce Taub's Sonata for solo viola boasts an imaginative use of a head-motive to help unify the work: the first note of the head-motive does not appear at the beginning of the Elegy, for instance, as it was the last note of the previous moment. The work is not easy to play, but is very effectively written for the instrument: of all the movements perhaps the most difficult is the Scherzo, which is written entirely in pizzicato at a metronomic speed of 384 per note. …

Autoimmune responses in peripheral nerve.

The PNS is an immunocompetent organ. The participating cellular and humoral elements in the local immune circuitry have been identified. A number of acute and chronic neuropathies appear to result from disturbed immune homeostasis. The model disorder EAN has been useful in examining the induction, amplification and effector phase of autoimmune responses to peripheral nerve antigens. Potential autoantigens contained in the myelin sheath and on the axolemma have been characterized. Thus, the recent years have seen a rapid growth of information concerning the pathogenesis of the important group of immune-mediated neuropathies. It can be anticipated that the better understanding of the principal mechanisms of autoimmunity in the PNS will aid in the development of more specific and efficacious treatments for these crippling diseases.

Laughter of the Samurai: Humor in the Autobiography of Etsu Sugimoto

Etsu Sugimoto's autobiography, A Daughter of the Samurai, was published in 1925, and critics since have sometimes dismissed it as the work of a conciliatory Asian American writer intent on furthering relations between Japan and the United States by lavishing praise upon her adopted country. Elaine Kim, in her ground-breaking introduction to Asian American literature, situates Sugimoto among the ambassadors of goodwill, who saw themselves as diplomats whose mission was to gain understanding for their homelands by explaining foreign customs to a Western audience (24).(1) Although Sugimoto does indeed fulfill this role in her autobiography, beneath the bowing facade of a compliant Japanese woman is a wordsmith whose love for and pride in her native culture refuses to be quashed by the weight of American misunderstanding.(2) Throughout her autobiography, Sugimoto gently rebuffs American disapproval of Japanese customs and employs subtle humor to critique America. In doing so, she seeks to establish her identity as an intellectually and morally superior individual who delicately maneuvers the boundaries between two cultures. If we accept Foucault's argument that the control of discourse yields power, then Sugimoto occupies a unique position as both autobiographer and humorist. As autobiographer, she assumes the triple role of author, narrator, and protagonist in her narrative. As humorist, she is teller, audience, and often the butt of her own humor, which both originates from her and frequently situates her as a target through self-effacing criticism of her own actions or Japanese customs.(3) Sugimoto should also be identified as the primary audience of her humor, because none of the reviewers of her day or critics of ours have bothered to mention this facet of her writing. From this site of ultimate control, Sugimoto subtly manipulates discursive positions, moving from the role of a naive immigrant who does not comprehend the laughter of those around her to that of a knowledgeable cultural anthropologist whose own humor is subtle but pointed. It should be understood that Samurai is not a comic text, nor is Sugimoto a comic figure as those terms are usually applied to Western literature. In his study of ancient and early Japanese humor, R.H. Blyth notes that the jokes and antics that often characterize Western comedy are just wit, without any increase of our wisdom or understanding of (162). In contrast, japanese humor tends to contain some deeper meaning that is often didactic or informational. This is not to imply that bawdy witticisms are not also an important element of Japanese humor; however, Sugimoto employs the humor found in classical Japanese literature, which J. Thomas Rimer describes as displaying sobriety and a lack of vulgarity (16).(4) Her use of a more refined form of humor is in keeping with her purpose to assert her humanity and to establish her moral superiority, as a representative Japanese woman, over an American readership. Ironically, Sugimoto's use of humor to defy American interpretations of Japan mirrors the development of humor in Japanese literature, which evolved as a form of opposition against the very class that Sugimoto represents. During the Tokugawa era (1600-1868), the rapidly expanding merchant class of Edo (now Tokyo) employed humor to express its dissatisfaction with life under samurai rule. The laws of Tokugawa's shoguns centered upon Chinese-derived Confucian traditions that placed restrictive doctrines upon many forms of social behavior. As an escape from moralizing ideology, the masses turned to literature, and jokebooks were produced that gave voice to the merchants' intent to subvert rulers' decrees (Levy 2). As an expression of her dissatisfaction with American responses to Japanese culture, Sugimoto uses humor to explain the Japanese character to an American readership by comparing customs of the West with those of the East and defending the one that she believes to be more practical or moral. …