Electrochemical Energy Storage Systems Research Articles

Modelling Li-V2O5 Batteries Using Galvanostatic Intermittent Titration Technique and Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy: Towards Final Applications

Given the relevance of lithium and post-lithium batteries as electrochemical energy storage systems, the peculiar crystalline structure of V2O5 and its doping capacity play key roles in lithium-ion battery technology. To integrate them in high-efficiency modules, systematic methodologies are required to estimate the state of charge in a reliable way and predict the Li-V2O5 battery’s performance according to their electrochemical phenomena, including two plateaus in the galvanostatic cycling curves and the dynamic behavior governed by the energy demand. Most state of charge estimation and battery modeling procedures are focused on conventional Li-batteries that show a unique plateau. In this work, we propose a systematic methodology based on the galvanostatic intermittent titration technique and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy to study battery performance in the time and frequency domains, respectively. The proposed methodology, with a time–frequency correlation, promotes a deeper understanding of the electrochemical phenomena and general behavior of Li-V2O5 batteries, allowing for its subsequent extrapolation to more complex and higher-capacity lithium and post-lithium batteries used in high-power applications with a minimum error.

Accelerating the Development of LLZO in Solid-State Batteries Toward Commercialization: A Comprehensive Review.

Solid-state batteries (SSBs) are under development as high-priority technologies for safe and energy-dense next-generation electrochemical energy storage systems operating over a wide temperature range. Solid-state electrolytes (SSEs) exhibit high thermal stability and, in some cases, the ability to prevent dendrite growth through a physical barrier, and compatibility with the "holy grail" metallic lithium. These unique advantages of SSEs have spurred significant research interests during the last decade. Garnet-type SSEs, that is, Li7La3Zr2O12 (LLZO), are intensively investigated due to their high Li-ion conductivity and exceptional chemical and electrochemical stability against lithium metal anodes. However, poor interfacial contact with cathode materials, undesirable lithium plating along grain boundaries, and moisture-induced chemical degradation greatly hinder the practical implementation of LLZO-based SSEs for SSBs. In this review, the recent advances in synthesis methods, modification strategies, corresponding mechanisms, and applications of garnet-based SSEs in SSBs are critically summarized. Furthermore, a comprehensive evaluation of the challenges and development trends of LLZO-based electrolytes in practical applications is presented to accelerate their development for high-performance SSBs.

Modeling and Simulation of Single Flow Zinc–Nickel Redox Battery Coupled with Multi-Physics Fields

Metallic zinc (Zn) presents a compelling alternative to conventional electrochemical energy storage systems due to its environmentally friendly nature, abundant availability, high water compatibility, low toxicity, low electrochemical potential (−0.762 V vs. SHE), and cost-effectiveness. While considerable efforts have been devoted to enhancing the physical and chemical properties of zinc-ion battery materials to improve battery efficiency and longevity, research on multi-physics coupled modeling for a deeper understanding of battery performance remains relatively scarce. In this study, we established a comprehensive two-dimensional model for single-flow zinc–nickel redox batteries to investigate electrode reactions, current-potential behaviors, and concentration distributions, leveraging theories such as Nernst–Planck and Butler–Volmer. Additionally, we explored the distribution of the velocity field using the Brinkman theory in porous media and the Navier–Stokes equations in free-flow channels. The validated model, informed by experimental data, not only provides insights into the performance of the battery, but also offers valuable recommendations for advancing single-flow zinc–nickel battery technology. Our findings offer promising avenues for enhancing the design and performance of not only zinc–nickel flow batteries, but also applicable for other flow battery designs.

A Hybrid-Salt Strategy for Modulating the Li+ Solvation Sheathes and Constructing Robust SEI in Non-Flammable Electrolyte Lithium Metal Batteries.

The electrode interface determines the performance of an electrochemical energy storage system. Using traditional electrolyte organic additives and high-concentration electrolyte emerging recently are two generally strategies for improving the electrode interface. Here, a hybrid-salt electrolyte strategy is proposed for constructing the stable electrode interface. Through the solubilization effect of phosphate ester on LiNO3, a hybrid-salts-based non-flammable phosphate ester electrolyte system (HSPE) with LiPF6 and LiNO3 as Li salts has been developed. By the strong interaction between NO3 - and Li+, the Li+ solvation sheath and solvent behaviors have been modulated, thus the undesirable effects of phosphate ester are eliminated and a robust SEI is formed. Experimental results and theoretical calculations illustrate that NO3 - as a kind of strongly coordinating anion can reduce the number of TEP molecules and lower the reduction reactivity of TEP. The reconfigured Li+ solvation structure allows the formation of an inorganic-rich SEI on the electrode surface. As a result, in the designed HSPE, the average coulombic efficiency of lithium plating/stripping is increased to 99.12 %. This work explored a new approach to construct the electrode interface and addressing the poor interface performance issue of phosphate esters.

Enhancement of Li/S Battery Performance by a Modified Reduced Graphene Oxide Carbon Host Decorated with MoO3.

Electrochemical energy storage systems based on sulfur and lithium can theoretically delivery high energy with the further benefit of low cost. However, the working mechanism of this device involves the dissolutions of sulfur to high-molecular weight lithium polysulfide (LiPs with general formula Li2Sn, n>4) in the electrolyte during the discharge process. Therefore, the resulting migration of partially dissociated LiPs, by diffusion or under the effect of the electric field, to the lithium anode activates an internal shuttle mechanism, reduces the active material and in general leads to loss of performance and a reduced cycling stability. These drawbacks poses challenges to the commercialization of Li/S cells in the short term. In this study, we report on the decoration of reduced graphene oxide with MoO3 particles to enhance interactions with LiPs and retain sulfur at the cathode side. The combination of experiments and density functional theory calculation demonstrated improvements in binding interactions between the cathode and sulfur species, enhancing the cycling stability of the Li/S half-cell.

Optimal charging for lithium-ion batteries to avoid lithium plating based on ultrasound-assisted diagnosis and model predictive control

Lithium plating in lithium-ion batteries for electric vehicles, occurring due to low-temperature or high-rate charging, is a significant factor impacting safety and service life. To address this issue, a novel adaptive charging approach is proposed, combining ultrasound-assisted diagnosis and model predictive control (MPC). In the method, a discrete state-space electrochemical model is used to describe the dynamic characteristics of the battery, and a model predictive controller (MPC) is utilized to optimize the charging current to avoid lithium plating. Considering that factors such as battery performance degradation and variable working temperature affect the battery model's judgment of lithium plating, an ultrasound-assisted diagnosis method is used to determine the critical point of lithium plating. The effectiveness of the method is validated through low-temperature charging and cycle aging experiments. The results indicate that without complex model parameter calibration in different temperatures, the new charging method not only has a higher charging speed than constant current charging, but also can effectively suppress the occurrence of lithium plating on the negative electrode of the battery. The method is expected to be applied in electrochemical energy storage systems to enhance safety and service life.

Sub-nanopores enabling optimized ion storage performance of carbon cathodes for Zn-ion hybrid supercapacitors

Aqueous Zn-ion hybrid supercapacitors (ZHSs) are attracting significant attention as a promising electrochemical energy storage system. However, carbon cathodes of ZHSs exhibit unsatisfactory ion storage performance due to the large size of hydrated Zn-ions (e.g., [Zn(H2O)6]2+), which encumbers compact ion arrangement and rapid ion transport at the carbon-electrolyte interfaces. Herein, a porous carbon material (HMFC) with abundant sub-nanopores is synthesized to optimize the ion storage performance of the carbon cathode in ZHSs, in which the sub-nanopores effectively promote the dehydration of hydrated Zn-ions and thus optimize the ion storage performance of the carbon cathode in ZHSs. A novel strategy is proposed to study the dehydration behaviors of hydrated Zn-ions in carbon cathodes, including quantitatively determining the desolvation activation energy of hydrated Zn-ions and in-situ monitoring active water content at the carbon-electrolyte interface. The sub-nanopores-induced desolvation effect is verified, and its coupling with large specific surface area and hierarchically porous structure endows the HMFC cathode with improved electrochemical performance, including a 53 % capacity increase compared to the carbon cathode counterpart without sub-nanopores, fast charge/discharge ability that can output 46.0 Wh/kg energy within only 4.4 s, and 98.2 % capacity retention over 20,000 charge/discharge cycles. This work provides new insights into the rational design of porous carbon cathode materials toward high-performance ZHSs.

Probing Electronic Structure Changes in Cobalt Oxalate Anode for Lithium‐Ion Batteries

AbstractTransition metal‐based materials exhibit a broad range of catalytic activities in numerous electrochemical processes. Their displayed catalytic functions rely essentially on their distinctive electronic structures, changes of which play pivotal roles in dictating reaction dynamics within many electrochemical devices. Nevertheless, accurately probing electronic structure changes, especially in real‐time, of active materials remains a formidable challenge. In this work, a viable approach to achieve it within a CoC2O4/Li model system by employing a combined microscopic is demonstrated, spectroscopic analysis, plus a unique operando magnetometry technique. The findings reveal that upon completion of the conventional conversion of CoC2O4, a surface‐dominated capacitance emerges at the Co/Li2C2O4 interface owing to the injection of spin‐polarized electrons. Subsequently, the decomposition of Li2C2O4 proceeds through the releasing of the spin‐polarized electrons from Co, which, therefore serve as a catalyst leading to further discharge products. Such real‐time monitoring of electron transfer is realized by in situ monitoring electronic structure changes of Co, manifested by its intriguing magnetization alterations during the process. This work highlights a novel characterization tool that provides a solid explanation for the commonly observed large capacities in this type of materials and sheds light on design rules and selection guidance of materials for high‐performance electrochemical energy storage systems.

Comparative study on the thermal runaway characteristics of Li(NixCoyMnz)O2 batteries

Lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) generate substantial gas during the thermal runaway (TR) process, presenting serious risks to electrochemical energy storage systems in case of ignition or explosions. Previous studies were mainly focused on investigating the TR characteristics of Li(NixCoyMnz)O2 batteries with different cathode materials, but they were conducted in isolation. In this study, the thermal runaway characteristics of prismatic cells that use Li(NixCoyMnz)O2 (with x ranging from 0.33 to 0.9) cathode materials in an inert environment, which are commonly used or proposed for energy storage applications, are examined. The findings of this research show that the normalized gas generation rate remains consistent, regardless of the battery capacity or experimental chamber volume, with a value of 0.1 ± 0.03 mol∙Ah⁻1. High-capacity cells have short jetting durations, and a high nickel content leads to increased mass loss rates. The flammability limits of the gases expelled during thermal runaway, represented by the lower flammability limit (LFL), remain stable at 8 ± 1.8% with minimal variations. However, the upper flammability limit (UFL) varies significantly, ranging from 30% to 60%. Increasing the battery capacity or reducing the experimental chamber volume increases the explosion index. The explosive, combustibility, and jetting duration characteristics of the emitted gases from five different battery chemical compositions provide valuable insights for risk assessment in future electrochemical energy storage systems.

Highly Exothermic and Fast Mechanochemical Redox and Intercalation Reactions of V2O5 with Sodium Hydride.

Vanadium oxides exhibit promising characteristics for electrochemical energy storage, owing to their capability to switch between different oxidation states, in combination with the incorporation of alkali metals. Here, we report on a systematic investigation of the mechanochemical reduction of V2O5 with NaH. In contrast to conventional high-temperature synthesis methods, the mechanochemical reaction occurs already after a few minutes. We observed a mixture of different (sodium) vanadium oxides with vanadium oxidation states ranging from +III to +V. Remarkably, these highly exothermic self-propagating reactions occur even within a rudimentary pistil-mortar setup. Hereby, the hydride concentration has a greater effect on the final sample composition than the milling time. In general, higher percentages of sodium vanadates are formed instead of vanadium oxides, and the lower oxidation states of vanadium are accessible with increasing amounts of NaH. Theoretical calculations confirm these experimental observations and emphasize the central role of sodium vanadates, especially with vanadium in the +V oxidation state, in carrying out the observed exothermic reactions. This comprehensive study sheds light on the mechanochemical reduction of vanadium oxides and underlines their potential for further development of electrochemical energy storage systems.

Heteroatom Doping in Pollutant Diesel Soot-Derived Nanocarbon for Enhanced Zn-Ion Storage Performance.

Herein, we have isolated onion-like nanocarbon (ONC) from the exhaust soot of diesel engines and further doped it with nitrogen (N) and sulfur (S) to fabricate N,S-co-doped ONC (N-S-ONC). To explore its application feasibility, we have assembled an aqueous Zn-ion hybrid supercapacitor (ZIHSC) with a N-S-ONC cathode, which attains high specific capacitance with good rate capability. In-depth analyses suggest that the mechanism of charge storage in the ONC is governed by both capacitive-controlled and diffusion-controlled processes, with the capacitive processes leading at all sweep rates. The ZIHSC demonstrated a good energy density of 50 Wh/kg, a maximum power density of 3.6 kW/kg, and an impressive cycle life with 73% capacitance retention after 50,000 charge-discharge cycles. The study suggests the potential possibly for the long-term application of BC derived nanocarbon in electrochemical energy storage systems (EESSs).

Mixed valence Mo2C-MoC/C catalyst enhances polysulfides conversion kinetics in lithium–sulfur batteries

Lithium-sulfur batteries have received extensive attention in the field of electrochemical energy storage systems due to their extremely high theoretical energy density (2600 Wh·kg−1) and low cost. However, poor electrical conductivity, shuttle effect, and volume expansion effect still need to be addressed. Here, we controllably synthesized hollow spherical Mo2C-MoC/C structure as the cathode material for lithium-sulfur batteries. Through high-temperature calcination, the synthesis of graphitized reticular carbon matrix and the loading of Mo2C and MoC nanoparticles with mixed valence of Mo2+ and Mo3+ were simultaneously achieved. The two synergistically improved the electronic conductivity and ensured excellent battery performance. From the experimental results, Mo2C-MoC/C structure strongly adsorbed polysulfides and promoted the conversion of polysulfides to lithium sulfide, accelerating the reaction kinetics and enhancing the battery performance. The initial discharge specific capacity of Mo2C-MoC/C electrode with 57.12 wt% sulfur content was 870.4 mAh·g−1 at 0.2 C, and remained at 770.7 mAh·g−1 at 0.5 C, which was significantly better than that of Mo2C/C/S. The rational design of the Mo2C-MoC/C structure in this study can be generalized to the advanced electrode materials of other Mo-based nanomaterials.

Intercalating polypyrrole tuning interlayer space of V2O5 for advanced aqueous zinc ion batteries

Aqueous zinc-ion batteries is considered as a promising system for large scale electrochemical energy storage system owing to their intrinsic safety, and low cost. Nevertheless, the industrialization process is slow due to the constraints of high-performance cathode materials. Adjusting the layered structure of V2O5 through metal ion or polymer intercalation can effectively improve low electron conductivity, vanadium dissolution, and slow ion transport kinetics. Herein, the conductive polymer polypyrrole-intercalated V2O5·H2O (PVOH) was successfully prepared via simple hydrothermal method and following interface polymerization reaction. Getting benefit from the insertion of polypyrrole, the prepared PVOH composite material achieves a V2O5 cathode with a more open structure, rich active sites, and greater stability, allowing for an expanded crystal plane spacing of 14.5 Å. Therefore, the PVOH electrode demonstrates a discharge capacity of 475 mAh g−1 and a cycling stability of 95% capacity retention after 2000 cycles. The intercalating conductive polymers strategy can become a new approach to improve the electrochemical behavior of vanadium oxide cathodes.

Challenges and Breakthroughs in Enhancing Temperature Tolerance of Sodium-Ion Batteries.

Lithium-based batteries (LBBs) have been highly researched and recognized as a mature electrochemical energy storage (EES) system in recent years. However, their stability and effectiveness are primarily confined to room temperature conditions. At temperatures significantly below 0°C or above 60°C, LBBs experience substantial performance degradation. Under such challenging extreme contexts, sodium-ion batteries (SIBs) emerge as a promising complementary technology, distinguished by their fast dynamics at low-temperature regions and superior safety under elevated temperatures. Notably, developing SIBs suitable for wide-temperature usage still presents significant challenges, particularly for specific applications such as electric vehicles, renewable energy storage, and deep-space/polar explorations, which requires a thorough understanding of how SIBs perform under different temperature conditions. By reviewing the development of wide-temperature SIBs, the influence of temperature on the parameters related to battery performance, such as reaction constant, charge transfer resistance, etc., is systematically and comprehensively analyzed. The review emphasizes challenges encountered by SIBs in both low and high temperatures while exploring recent advancements in SIB materials, specifically focusing on strategies to enhance battery performance across diverse temperature ranges. Overall, insights gained from these studies will drive the development of SIBs that can handle the challenges posed by diverse and harsh climates.

Chitosan Composite Membrane with Efficient Hydroxide Ion Transport via Nano-Confined Hydrogen Bonding Network for Alkaline Zinc-Based Flow Batteries.

The development of membranes with rapid and selective ionic transport is imperative for diverse electrochemical energy conversion and storage systems, including fuel cells and flow batteries. However, the practical application of membranes is significantly hindered by their limited conductivity and stability under strong alkaline conditions. Herein, a unique composite membrane decorated with functional Cu2+ cross-linked chitosan (Cts-Cu-M) is reported and their high hydroxide ion conductivity and stability in alkaline flow batteries are demonstrated. The underlying hydroxide ions transport of the membrane through Cu2+ coordinated nano-confined channels with abundant hydrogen bonding network via Grotthuss (proton hopping) mechanism is proposed. Consequently, the Cts-Cu-M membrane achieves high hydroxide ion conductivity with an area resistance of 0.17Ωcm2 and enables an alkaline zinc-based flow battery to operate at 320mAcm-2, along with an energy efficiency of ≈80%. Furthermore, the membrane enables the battery for 200cycles of long-cycle stability at a current density of 200mAcm-2. This study offers an in-depth understanding of ion transport for the design and preparation of high-performance membranes for energy storage devices and beyond.

The gas production characteristics and catastrophic hazards evaluation of thermal runaway for LiNi0.5Co0.2Mn0.3O2 lithium-ion batteries under different SOCs

Lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) are widely used as electrochemical energy storage systems in electric vehicles due to their high energy density and long cycle life. However, fire accidents present a trend of frequent occurrence caused by thermal runaway (TR) of LIBs, so it is especially important to evaluate the catastrophic hazards of these LIBs. This study conducted the adiabatic TR test coupled gas production test, Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry test, and explosion limit test on a commercial LIB with Ni0.5Co0.2Mn0.3 as the cathode material at different states of charge (SOCs). The results show that the TR temperature and the maximum temperature at low SOC are lower compared to that at a high SOC. The probability of LIBs TR at less than SOC = 50 % is small and also causing less harm. For the gas production characteristics, the lower the SOC of the battery, the lower the gas production volume. The peak and steady-state gas production increase with the increase of SOC. For the mixed gases generated during TR, the content of CO2 shows a trend of decreasing with the increasing of battery SOC, while that of H2 and CO increase with the increasing of SOC. For the explosion limit of the mixed gas, the lower explosion limit and upper explosion limit decrease and increase with the increasing of SOC, respectively. Finally, based on the seven parameters related to the TR gas production of LIBs and so on, the analytic hierarchy process method was used to establish a LIB TR disaster-causing hazard evaluation system. The evaluation system can quantitatively evaluate the thermal safety of a LIB. This is instructive for establishing a comprehensive quantitative evaluation method for battery safety in practical engineering applications.

Giant energy storage and power density negative capacitance superlattices.

Dielectric electrostatic capacitors1, due to their ultrafast charge-discharge capability, are attractive for high power energy storage applications. Along with ultrafast operation, on-chip integration can enable miniaturized energy storage devices for emerging autonomous microelectronics and microsystems2-5. Additionally, state-of-the-art miniaturized electrochemical energy storage systems - microsupercapacitors and microbatteries - currently face safety, packaging, materials, and microfabrication challenges preventing on-chip technological readiness2,3,6, leaving an opportunity for electrostatic microcapacitors. Here we report record-high electrostatic energy storage density (ESD) and power density (PD) in HfO2- ZrO2-based thin film microcapacitors integrated on silicon, through a three-pronged approach. First, to increase intrinsic energy storage, atomic-layer-deposited antiferroelectric HfO2-ZrO2 films are engineered near a field-driven ferroelectric phase transition to exhibit amplified charge storage via the negative capacitance effect7-12, which enhances volumetric-ESD beyond the best-known back-end-of-the-line (BEOL) compatible dielectrics (115 J-cm-3)13. Second, to increase total energy storage, antiferroelectric superlattice engineering14 scales the energy storage performance beyond the conventional thickness limitations of HfO2-ZrO2-based (anti)ferroelectricity15 (100-nm regime). Third, to increase storage-per-footprint, the superlattices are conformally integrated into three-dimensional capacitors, which boosts areal-ESD (areal-PD) 9-times (170-times) the best-known electrostatic capacitors: 80 mJ-cm-2 (300 kW-cm-2). This simultaneous demonstration of ultrahigh energy- and power-density overcomes the traditional capacity-speed trade-off across the electrostatic-electrochemical energy storage hierarchy1,16. Furthermore, integration of ultrahigh-density and ultrafast-charging thin films within a BEOL-compatible process enables monolithic integration of on-chip microcapacitors5, which can unlock substantial energy storage and power delivery performance for electronic microsystems17-19.

Characterization of the aluminium-air battery utilizing a polypropylene separator with corrosion inhibition ability

Battery energy storage systems are widely used in modern electronic devices and electric vehicles. Metal-air batteries are among the electrochemical energy storage systems that provide high energy density and eco-friendly solutions. Aluminium-air batteries hold a significant advantage with their high theoretical specific energy and have the potential to replace lithium-ion batteries in the future. In this study, the electrical performance and corrosion inhibition characteristics of a polypropylene-based single and dual electrolyte system for aluminium-air batteries were investigated experimentally. The study revealed that a polypropylene separator can reduce the corrosion of the aqueous aluminium-air battery system by up to 40 %, improving the anodic utilization efficiency to 93 %. Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy analysis was used to characterize the single and dual electrolyte aluminium-air battery and propose equivalent circuit models. Compared to 1 M KOH electrolyte in a single electrolyte system, the solution resistance of a dual electrolyte aluminium-air battery was reduced by about 40 % using a combination of 1 M of KOH electrolyte and 1 M of H2SO4. This reduction is attributed to the enhancement of the oxygen reduction reaction at the air cathode. A high KOH electrolyte concentration will increase the corrosion of the aluminium anode but can improve the battery’s voltage. At 3 M KOH electrolyte, the plateau voltage is recorded at about 0.6 V while the discharge time reached 44 min when using aluminium alloy 6061 as the anode. The battery model developed in this work provides a fundamental basis for predicting the performance of aluminium-air battery packs.

Review of Mechanical, Electrochemical, Electrical, and Hybrid Energy Storage Systems Used for Electric Vehicles

The population rate in the world is increasing rapidly. Depending on the population, the need for transportation increases at the same rate. Traditional vehicles, which provide great convenience in transportation, bring with them some disadvantages. For example, the fossil fuel used in conventional vehicles creates greenhouse gases such as CO2 and N2O. This has a negative impact on global warming. To eliminate these negativities, interest in electric vehicle (EV) and hybrid electric vehicles (HEV) technology studies has increased recently. Some problems have arisen with these technological studies. The range problem in vehicles is the biggest of these problems. Therefore, various solutions are sought for energy storage problems in vehicles. In this article, studies on HEV and energy storage in EVs are examined. According to the data obtained because of this examination, the performance analysis of the Energy Storage Systems (ESS) was made. The performances of the electrochemical batteries used in HEVs and EVs were compared. In addition to these, flywheel energy storage system was also investigated in HEVs and EVs to recover the energy lost because of braking.

Sulfur-Defect-Induced TiS1.94 as a High-Capacity and Long-Life Anode Material for Zinc-Ion Batteries.

Aqueous zinc-ion batteries (ZIBs) are competitive among the elective candidates for electrochemical energy storage systems, but the intrinsic drawbacks of zinc metal anodes such as dendrites and corrosion severely hinder their large-scale application. Developing alternative anode materials capable of high reversibility and stability for storing Zn2+ ions is a feasible approach to circumvent the challenge. Herein, a sulfur-defect-induced TiS1.94 (D-TiS1.94) as a promising intercalation anode material for ZIBs is designed. The abundant Zn2+-storage active sites and lower Zn2+ migration barrier induced by sulfur defects endow D-TiS1.94 with a high capacity for Zn2+-storage (219.1 mA h g-1 at 0.05 A g-1) and outstanding rate capability (107.3 mA h g-1 at 5 A g-1). In addition, a slight volume change of 8.1% is identified upon Zn2+ storage, which favors a prolonged cycling life (50.3% capacity remaining in 1500 cycles). More significantly, the D-TiS1.94||ZnxMnO2 full battery demonstrates a high discharge capacity of 155.7 mA h g-1 with a capacity retention of 59.8% in 400 cycles. It has been estimated that the high-capacity, low-operation voltage, and long-life D-TiS1.94 can be a promising component of the ZIB anode material family, and the strategy proposed in this work will provide guidance to the defect engineering of high-performance electrode materials toward energy storage applications.