Effects Of Long-duration Spaceflight Research Articles

Markedly decreased growth rate and biofilm formation ability of Acinetobacter schindleri after a long-duration (64 days) spaceflight.

The objective of this study was to investigate the effects of long-duration space flight on the biological characteristics of Acinetobacter schindleri (A. schindleri). In this study, an A. schindleri strain was collected from condensate water of the Shenzhou-10 spacecraft and then was sent into space again to the Tiangong-2 space lab for a long-duration spaceflight (64 days). Later, the impacts of the long-duration spaceflight on phenotype, genome and transcriptome of A. schindleri were analyzed. It was found that the long-duration spaceflight markedly decreased the growth rate and biofilm formation ability of A. schindleri. Furthermore, comparative genomic and transcriptomic analyses revealed that the decreased growth rate might be associated with differentially expressed genes (DEGs) involved in transmembrane transport, energy production and conversion, and biofilm was reduced due to downregulation of the pil and algR genes. The findings are of major importance for predicting bacterial pathogenesis mechanisms and possible spacecraft contamination during long-duration spaceflights in the future.

The Effects of Long Duration Spaceflight on Sensorimotor Control and Cognition.

Astronauts returning from spaceflight typically show transient declines in mobility and balance. Other sensorimotor behaviors and cognitive function have not been investigated as much. Here, we tested whether spaceflight affects performance on various sensorimotor and cognitive tasks during and after missions to the International Space Station (ISS). We obtained mobility (Functional Mobility Test), balance (Sensory Organization Test-5), bimanual coordination (bimanual Purdue Pegboard), cognitive-motor dual-tasking and various other cognitive measures (Digit Symbol Substitution Test, Cube Rotation, Card Rotation, Rod and Frame Test) before, during and after 15 astronauts completed 6 month missions aboard the ISS. We used linear mixed effect models to analyze performance changes due to entering the microgravity environment, behavioral adaptations aboard the ISS and subsequent recovery from microgravity. We observed declines in mobility and balance from pre- to post-flight, suggesting disruption and/or down weighting of vestibular inputs; these behaviors recovered to baseline levels within 30 days post-flight. We also identified bimanual coordination declines from pre- to post-flight and recovery to baseline levels within 30 days post-flight. There were no changes in dual-task performance during or following spaceflight. Cube rotation response time significantly improved from pre- to post-flight, suggestive of practice effects. There was also a trend for better in-flight cube rotation performance on the ISS when crewmembers had their feet in foot loops on the “floor” throughout the task. This suggests that tactile inputs to the foot sole aided orientation. Overall, these results suggest that sensory reweighting due to the microgravity environment of spaceflight affected sensorimotor performance, while cognitive performance was maintained. A shift from exocentric (gravity) spatial references on Earth toward an egocentric spatial reference may also occur aboard the ISS. Upon return to Earth, microgravity adaptions become maladaptive for certain postural tasks, resulting in transient sensorimotor performance declines that recover within 30 days.

Effects of Long-Duration Spaceflight on Vertebral Strength and Risk of Spine Fracture.

Although the negative impact of long-duration spaceflight on spine BMD has been reported, its impact on vertebral strength and risk of vertebral fracture remains unknown. This study examined 17 crewmembers with long-duration service on the International Space Station in whom computed tomography (CT) scans of the lumbar spine (L1 and L2 ) were collected preflight, immediately postflight and 1 to 4 years after return to Earth. We assessed vertebral strength via CT-based finite element analysis (CT-FEA) and spinal loading during different activities via subject-specific musculoskeletal models. Six months of spaceflight reduced vertebral strength by 6.1% (-2.3%, -8.7%) (median [interquartile range]) compared to preflight (p < 0.05), with 65% of subjects experiencing deficits of greater than 5%, and strengths were not recovered up to 4 years after the mission. This decline in vertebral strength exceeded (p < 0.05) the 2.2% (-1.3%, -6.0%) decline in lumbar spine DXA-BMD. Further, the subject-specific changes in vertebral strength were not correlated with the changes in DXA-BMD. Although spinal loading increased slightly postflight, the ratio of vertebral compressive load to vertebral strength for typical daily activities remained well below a value of 1.0, indicating a low risk of vertebral fracture despite the loss in vertebral strength. However, for more strenuous activity, the postflight load-to-strength ratios ranged from 0.3 to 0.7, indicating a moderate risk of vertebral fracture in some individuals. Our findings suggest persistent deficits in vertebral strength following long-duration spaceflight, and although risk of vertebral fracture remains low for typical activities, the risk of vertebral fracture is notable in some crewmembers for strenuous exercise requiring maximal effort. © 2019 American Society for Bone and Mineral Research.

Neck Muscle Changes Following Long-Duration Spaceflight.

The effects of long-duration spaceflight on crewmember neck musculature have not been adequately studied. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the changes in the neck musculature on pre-flight and post-flight magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) examinations of six crewmembers on 4- to 6-month missions equipped with the advanced resistive exercise device (aRED). The MRI images were resliced to remove variations in spinal curvature, the cross-sectional area (CSA), and muscle fat infiltration (MFI) of neck musculature at the C1-C2, C4-C5, C7-T1, and T1-T2 intervertebral disc levels were measured bilaterally. Percent changes in the neck muscle CSA and fatty infiltration following spaceflight were calculated, and mixed models were used to assess significance of these changes. Crewmembers on missions equipped with the aRED experienced an average 25.1% increase in CSA for the trapezius muscle at C6-C7, an average 11.5% increase in CSA for the semispinalis capitis muscle at C4-C5, an average 9.0% increase in CSA for the sternocleidomastoid muscle at C4-C5, and an average 23.1% increase in CSA for the rhomboid minor at T1-T2. There were no significant changes in the CSA of the levator scapulae, splenius capitis, rectus capitis posterior major, scalenus anterior, scalenus posterior, scalenus medius, longissimus capitis, or obliquus capitis inferior muscles at the locations measured. None of the muscles analyzed experienced statistically significant changes in fatty infiltration with spaceflight. Our study indicates that long-duration spaceflight conditions are associated with preservation of CSA in most neck muscles and significant increases in the CSAs of the trapezius, semispinalis capitis, sternocleidomastoid, and rhomboid minor muscles. This may indicate that cervical muscles are not subjected to the same degradative effects microgravity imparts on the majority of muscles.

Brain Quantitative MRI Metrics in Astronauts as a Unique Professional Group.

As part of its technological sophistication, the International Space Station (ISS) Program operates a robust medical surveillance schedule for its rotating 6-person crew to control the known health risks and to address knowledge gaps related to human health in space flight environment. Recent evidence on visual impairment in a subset of ISS crew has renewed the interest in the effects of long-duration space flight on the central nervous system (CNS). Through retrospective analysis in a sample of 10 healthy astronauts, we demonstrate the utility of multimodal quantitative magnetic resonance imaging (qMRI) with diffusion tensor imaging (DTI)-based customized brain templates to examine the structural attributes of various CNS compartments in this occupational group. The study included 10 healthy astronauts (45-55 years). All subjects had previous space flights with the median duration of 110 days. Multimodal quantitative structural imaging modalities performed and used in analyses. A host of CNS features are presented, which are largely commensurate with the available normative data. Remarkably, some of our findings demonstrate statistically significant positive features suggestive of structural neuroplasticity conceivably associated with the professional activities of astronauts, and compensatory neurogenesis that counterweighs the expected normative volume loss with age. The novelty of this exploratory report is in the demonstration of a qMRI toolset as a potential capability for characterization and surveillance of unique professional groups, and for future prospective examinations of the effects of various long-term exposures on CNS.

STUDIES OF SPACEFLIGHT EFFECTS ON A 3D MODEL OF CHONDROBLAST CULTURE.

The effect of long-duration space flight on the vital processes in human chondroblasts in vitro was studied with a number of morphologic, biochemical and optic techniques. Object of investigation was a 3-D porous biocarrier populated by a cell culture in a leak-free vessel completely full of growth medium. The investigation was performed onboard automatic .spacecraft Foton-M4 with the use of research equipment SIGMA. Synchronous experiments were conducted in ground laboratory. The experiment with cell culture prepared of the human hyaline cartilage validated suitability of this model for long-duration experiments with adhesive cells on automatic spacecraft; besides, the experimental results suggest that in spaceflight microgravity adhesive cells exist in the state of suspension.

STATUS OF THE SYSTEM OF SIGNALING PATTERN RECOGNITION RECEPTORS OF MONOCYTES AND GRANULOCYTES IN COSMONAUTS' PERIPHERAL BLOOD BEFORE AND AFTER LONG-DURATION MISSIONS TO THE INTERNATIONAL SPACE STATION.

The system of signaling pattern recognition receptors was studied in 8 cosmonauts aged 35 to 56 years before and after (R+) long-duration missions to the International space station. Peripheral blood samples were analyzed for the content of monocytes and granulocytes that express the signaling pattern recognition Toll- like (TLR) receptors localized as on cell surface (TLR1, TLR2, TLR4, TLR5, TLR6), so inside cells (TLR3, TLR8, TLR9). In parallel, serum concentrations of TLR2 (HSP60) and TLR4 ligands (HSP70, HMGB1) were measured. The results of investigations showed growth of HSP60, HSP70 and HMGB1 concentrations on R+1. In the;majority of cosmonauts increases in endogenous ligands were followed by growth in the number of both monocytes and granulocytes that express TLR2 1 TLR4. This consistency gives ground to assume that changes in the system of signaling pattern recognition receptors can stem .from the predominantly endogenous ligands' response to the effects of long-duration space flight on human organism.

NASA to use twin astronauts to study effects of long-duration spaceflight

NASA to use twin astronauts to study effects of long-duration spaceflight

Adrenocortical and Immune Responses Following Short- and Long-Duration Spaceflight

Short-term spaceflight is associated with significant but reversible immunological alterations. However, little information exists on the effects of long-duration spaceflight on neuroimmune responses. We collected multiple pre- and postflight samples from Shuttle and International Space Station (ISS) crewmembers in order to compare adrenocortical and immune responses between short- (approximately 11 d) and long-duration (approximately 180 d) spaceflight. In Shuttle crewmembers, increased stress hormone levels and altered leukocyte subsets were observed prior to launch and at landing. Additionally, typical stress-induced shifts in leukocyte and lymphocyte subsets, as well as the percentage of T-cells capable of producing intracellular IFN-gamma were also decreased just before launch and immediately after landing. Plasma IL-10 levels were increased before launch but not postflight. No preflight changes occurred in ISS crewmembers, but long-duration crewmembers exhibited significantly greater spikes in both plasma and urinary cortisol at landing as compared to Shuttle crewmembers. The percentage of T-cells capable of producing intracellular IFN-gamma was decreased in ISS crewmembers. Plasma IL-10 was increased postflight. Unexpectedly, stress-induced shifts in lymphocyte subpopulations were absent after long-duration flights despite significantly increased stress hormones at landing. Our results demonstrate significant differences in neuroimmune responses between astronauts flying on short-duration Shuttle missions versus long-duration ISS missions, and they agree with prior studies demonstrating the importance of mission duration in the magnitude of these changes.

On-Orbit Prospective Echocardiography on International Space Station Crew

A prospective trial of echocardiography was conducted on six crew members onboard the International Space Station. The main objective was to determine the efficacy of remotely guided tele-echocardiography, including just-in-time e-training methods and determine what is "space normal" echocardiographic data. Each crew member operator (n = 6) had 2-hour preflight training. Baseline echocardiographic data were collected 55-167 days preflight. Similar equipment was used in each 60-minute in-flight session (mean microgravity exposure--114 days [34--190]). On-orbit ultrasound (US) operators used an e-learning system within 24 hours of these sessions. Expert assistance was provided using US video downlink and two-way voice. Testing was repeated 5-16 days after landing. Separate ANOVA was used on each echocardiographic variable (n = 33). Within each ANOVA, three tests were made: (a) effect of mission phase (preflight, in-flight, postflight); (b) effect of echo technician (two technicians independently analyzed the data); (c) interaction between mission phase and technician. Eleven rejections of the null hypothesis (mission phase or technician or both had no effect) were found that could be considered for possible follow up. Of these, eight rejections were for significant technician effects, not space flight. Three rejections of the null hypothesis (aortic valve time velocity integral, mitral E-wave velocity, and heart rate) were attributable to space flight but determine to not be clinically significant. No rejections were due to the interaction between technician and space flight. Thus, we found no consistent clinically significant effects of long-duration space flight on echocardiographic variables of the given group of subjects.

Effects of long-duration space flight on target acquisition

The purpose of the study was to explore the effects of long-duration space flight on the acquisition of specific visual targets in the horizontal plane. Seven cosmonauts (4 high performance pilots and 3 non-pilots) who had flown between 186–198 days on Mir served as subjects. Baseline testing was performed 4 times prior to launch and 4 times following landing at different intervals totrack recovery. During testing the subjects were required to acquire targets that were randomly presented with both a head and eye movement using a time optimal strategy. Prior to flight two unique head movement strategies, related primarily to piloting experience, were used for target acquisition. Non-pilots employed a Type-I strategy consisting of high velocity head movements with large peak amplitudes, while high performance pilots used primarily low velocity, small amplitude head movements (Type-II) to acquire the targets (p<0.02). For both strategies peak head velocities increased as the angular distance to the target increased (p<0.01) resulting in greater discrimination between strategies for the 60° targets. While preflight eye velocity between strategies did not reach statistical significance, postflight testing revealed a decrease in eye velocity for Type-I compared with their preflight performance (p<0.02) for the 60° targets. Postflight, the Type-I group showed a decrease in head velocity (p<0.20) while the Type-II group compensated by increasing head velocity (p<0.02). Variability for both of the head and eye parameters tended to increase postflight for both types of strategies.

Effects of long-duration space flight on calcium metabolism: Review of human studies from Skylab to the present

One of the major effects of prolonged weightlessness seen in long-duration space flights has been an extended loss of bone from the skeleton. The principal characteristics of this loss were shown in the metabolic studies carried out on the Skylab flights of 1, 2 and 3 months in 1973 and 1974. These studies now provide the background for a comprehensive review of the considerable number of subsequent calcium studies in humans during space flights from that time until the present. Because of the close similarities in pattern and degree between space flight and bed rest in effects on calcium metabolism, relevant long-term human bed rest studies have been included. An analysis is presented of the bone calcium loss data with respect to degree, duration and significance, as well as relative failure of reversibility or recovery following flights. Possible mechanisms of bone loss are discussed: the physiological condition of disuse atrophy, increase in bone resorption, decrease (later and lesser) in bone formation, decrease in intestinal calcium absorption, increase in glucocorticoids, along with the threat of urinary tract stone formation and proposed countermeasures. Considerable future research is needed, particularly on mechanisms of bone loss and on countermeasures, to be carried out on the International Space Station and via bed rest studies, before a mission to and return from Mars is undertaken.

Accomplishments in bioastronautics research aboard International Space Station

The tenth long-duration expedition crew is currently in residence aboard International Space Station (ISS), continuing a permanent human presence in space that began in October 2000. During that time, expedition crews have been operators and subjects for 18 Human Life Sciences investigations, to gain a better understanding of the effects of long-duration space flight on the crewmembers and of the environment in which they live. Investigations have been conducted to study: the radiation environment in the station as well as during extravehicular activity (EVA); bone demineralization and muscle deconditioning; changes in neuromuscular reflexes; muscle forces and postflight mobility; causes and possible treatment of postflight orthostatic intolerance; risk of developing kidney stones; changes in pulmonary function caused by long-duration flight as well as EVA; crew and crew–ground interactions; changes in immune function, and evaluation of imaging techniques. The experiment mix has included some conducted in flight aboard ISS as well as several which collected data only pre- and postflight. The conduct of these investigations has been facilitated by the Human Research Facility (HRF). HRF Rack 1 became the first research rack on ISS when it was installed in the US laboratory module Destiny in March 2001. The rack provides a core set of experiment hardware to support investigations, as well as power, data and commanding capability, and stowage. The second HRF rack, to complement the first with additional hardware and stowage capability, will be launched once Shuttle flights resume. Future years will see additional capability to conduct human research on ISS as International Partner modules and facility racks are added to ISS. Crew availability, both as a subject count and time, will remain a major challenge to maximizing the science return from the bioastronautics research program.

Effect of long-duration spaceflight on postural control during self-generated perturbations.

This report is the first systematic evaluation of the effects of prolonged weightlessness on the bipedal postural control processes during self-generated perturbations produced by voluntary upper limb movements. Spaceflight impacts humans in a variety of ways, one of which is compromised postflight postural control. We examined the neuromuscular activation characteristics and center of pressure (COP) motion associated with arm movement of eight subjects who experienced long-duration spaceflight (3--6 mo) aboard the Mir space station. Surface electromyography, arm acceleration, and COP motion were collected while astronauts performed rapid unilateral shoulder flexions before and after spaceflight. Subjects generally displayed compromised postural control after flight, as evidenced by modified COP peak-to-peak anterior-posterior and mediolateral excursion, and pathlength relative to preflight values. These changes were associated with disrupted neuromuscular activation characteristics, particularly after the completion of arm acceleration (i.e., when subjects were attempting to maintain upright posture in response to self-generated perturbations). These findings suggest that, although the subjects were able to assemble coordination modes that enabled them to generate rapid arm movements, the subtle control necessary to maintain bipedal equilibrium evident in their preflight performance is compromised after long-duration spaceflight.