Effects Of Goal Difficulty Research Articles

Goal Difficulty and Creative Performance: The Mediating Role of Stress Appraisal

ABSTRACTWe investigated whether the effect of goal difficulty on creativity may be clarified by examining how people appraise their working conditions. In an experiment, 157 undergraduate students completed a divergent thinking task for which goal difficulty was manipulated. Stress appraisals were assessed through self-reports, and creativity was evaluated by independent judges. Results indicated that difficult goals, although categorized as a challenge stressor, can also be appraised as a hindrance and/or a threat. Although there was a direct positive effect of difficult goals on creative performance, hindrance appraisals partially mediated a negative relationship between goal difficulty and creative performance. Results highlight that stress appraisals can help clarify inconsistent effects of stressors, with implications for managing creativity.

The neglected mediating role of self-efficacy in the goal setting process in local public administrations

To analyse the role of self-efficacy in goal setting in public administrations, this study combines goal-setting theory, public service motivation literature and cognitive theory. Using partial least squares structural equation modelling (PLS-SEM), survey data from 105 German civil servants are analysed. The results underline the role of goal setting (represented by goal difficulty and specificity) in determining the self-efficacy of public servants. Public service motivation and goal specificity both increase public servants’ work performance; however, the effects of goal difficulty are negatively mediated by the employee’s self-efficacy. That finding reflects the central role of self-efficacy, which should not be ignored in the goal-setting processes of public administrations.

The Moderating Effect of Goal Setting on Performance Measurement System-managerial Performance Relationship

Abstract The aim of this study is to examine the moderating effect of goal setting characteristics on the performance measurement system-managerial performance relationship. Goal characteristics studied were goal difficulty, goal specificity, goal participative and goal commitment. The population of this study was middle level managers in banking institutions in Pekanbaru City, Indonesia. A survey was conducted to 108 managers and 51 useable responses were then analyzed by using Moderated Regression Analysis (MRA). The results prove that goal specificity, goal participative and goal commitment strengthen or moderate the relationship between performance evaluation system and managerial performance. Data of this study failed to support the moderating effect of goal difficulty on performance measurement system-managerial performance relationship.

The Effect of Goal Difficulty on Escalation of Commitment

AbstractEscalation of commitment to a failing course of action is a problem in behavioral decision making that occurs across a wide range of social contexts. In this research, we show that examining escalation of commitment from a goal setting theory perspective provides fresh insights into how goal difficulty influences escalation of commitment. Specifically, through a series of two experiments, we found a curvilinear relationship between goal difficulty and post‐feedback goal commitment, which was mediated by valence and expectancy associated with goal attainment. In turn, it is commitment to goals that leads individuals to continue a previous course of action despite negative feedback. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Goal Difficulty and Openness to Interpersonal Goal Support.

When people pursue important goals, they are often surrounded by close others who could provide help and support for the achievement of these goals. The present work investigated whether people are more likely to be open to such interpersonal goal support from a romantic partner when they perceive their goals as being easy versus difficult. Using a multiple methods approach, three studies revealed that, compared with the pursuit of easy goals, when people pursue difficult goals, they are less likely to seek out and be open to support from their romantic partner. Studies 2 and 3 revealed that the effect of goal difficulty on openness to support was partially mediated by loss in self-efficacy. Finally, Study 3 revealed that lack of openness to support can have detrimental long-term consequences for the relationship, as it undermines relationship well-being.

Effects of Goal Difficulty and Temporality in Motor Skill Acquisition Using the Bachman Ladder

The effects of different types of goal setting on motor skill learning were investigated. 100 individuals (64 men, 36 women) without experience in the performance of the Bachman ladder task participated. Participants were randomly assigned to one of five goal groups: (a) generic, (b) long-term, difficult, (c) long-term, easy, (d) short- and long-term, difficult, and (e) short- and long-term, easy. In the acquisition phase, participants performed 200 trials, and in the transfer and retention phases, each performed 50 trials. The dependent variable was the number of steps achieved in blocks of 10 trials. The results showed that the groups had similar performances in both the transfer and retention phases. Setting of generic, difficult, easy, long- and short-term, and self-setting goals all enabled similar effects on motor learning.

Adaptation of Teams in Response to Unforeseen Change: Effects of Goal Difficulty and Team Composition in Terms of Cognitive Ability and Goal Orientation.

Halfway through a 3-hour experiment in which 64 3-person teams needed to make a series of decisions, a communications channel began to deteriorate, and teams needed to adapt their system of roles in order to perform effectively. Consistent with previous research, team composition with respect to members' cognitive ability was positively associated with adaptation. Adaptation was also influenced by interactions of team goal difficulty and team composition with respect to team members' goal orientation. Teams with difficult goals and staffed with high-performance orientation members were especially unlikely to adapt. Teams with difficult goals and staffed with high-learning orientation members were especially likely to adapt. Supplemental analyses provided insight into the observed effects in that the difficulty of team goals and members' goal orientation predicted interpersonal, transition, and action processes, all of which predicted team adaptation.

The effect of goal difficulty and goal orientation on running performance in young female athletes

Locke and Latham (1985) hypothesised that goals are more efficiently attained when they are perceived to be difficult but realistic to achieve. Furthermore, goal orientation is believed to be a strong determinant of effort exertion and adherence in performing tasks. To verify these two concepts, in real-life situations, 28 young female runners (13–16 years) were blocked (randomly assigned) to one of three goal-difficulty conditions over a 4-week period: easy, difficult/realistic, and improbable/unattainable. Short-term goals for each condition were set (1.25%, 2.5%, and 3.75% improvement per week, respectively), as were long-term goals (5%, 10%, and 15% overall improvement, respectively). Participants completed the Task and Ego Orientation in Sport Questionnaire prior to the goal intervention. Locke and Latham's (1985) goal attainability hypothesis was not supported by the results of the study, as athletes enhanced their running performance equally regardless of their specific goals. Both ego and task orientations were found to be moderately but significantly correlated with running improvement rate. However, task and ego orientation were found to be significantly correlated to each other, indicating that, in this sample of athletes, these two orientations were not independent of each other. Together, they accounted for 30% of the improvement rate variance across 4 weeks. The additive effect of goal orientation and goal setting on athletic performance should be investigated for a longer period of time and with experienced athletes of a high calibre.

Effect of goal difficulty, goal specificity and duration of practice time intervals on muscular endurance performance

The aims of this study were to explore the relationships between goal specificity, goal difficulty and performance, and to determine if setting unrealistic goals would produce decreases in performance. The subjects were high school students from 15 schools and an attempt was made to control for the effects of social comparison. The schools were randomly assigned to one of 15 conditions representing five levels of goal conditions - namely, ‘do’ (no goals), ‘do your best’, ‘improve by 10%’ (easy), ‘improve by 20%’ (difficult/realistic) and ‘improve by 40%’ (improbable/unattainable)- and three levels of practice duration (4, 6 and 8 weeks). This design consisted of nesting goal difficulty within practice duration, which enabled an examination of the goal specificity and goal attainability/difficulty hypotheses proposed by Locke and Latham (1985). A 5 3 factorial ANCOVA was applied to the post-baseline sit-up gain scores. The results indicated that all specific groups performed better than all non-specific groups. In addition, across practice durations, the difficult/realistic group exhibited the greatest increase in performance, followed by the easy group. The performance gains of the improbable/unattainable group were substantially less compared with the difficult/realistic group after 4 and 6 weeks, but not after 8 weeks of practice. These results are in line with both the goal specificity and goal difficulty hypotheses derived from the application of Locke's goal-setting theory to sport.

The effects of goal difficulty on physiological arousal, cognition, and task performance.

Conducted 2 laboratory experiments with 117 undergraduates to examine (1) the effect of assigned goal difficulty on arousal (self-report and heart rate), cognition (perceived norm, self-efficacy strength, and personal goal), and behavioral (task performance) measures and (2) the role of heart rate as a mediator of the goal-difficulty-performance relation. All Ss performed a task requiring cognitive and physical responses. Results of both experiments demonstrate that assigned goal difficulty affected heart rate, cognition, and task performance and that heart rate change was positively related to the cognitive and behavioral measures. Regression analyses suggested that a cognitive-affective mechanism may mediate the goal-difficulty-performance relation. Discussion is focused on the theoretical and practical implications of integrating an arousal concept within goal-setting theory. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)

The effects of goal difficulty on physiological arousal, cognition, and task performance.

Two laboratory experiments with 117 undergraduate students were conducted to examine (a) the effect of assigned goal difficulty on arousal (self-report and heart rate), cognition (perceived norm, self-efficacy strength, and personal goal), and behavioral (task performance) measures and (b) the role of heart rate as a mediator of the goal-difficulty-performance relation. All Ss performed a task requiring cognitive and physical responses. Results of both experiments demonstrated that assigned goal difficulty affected heart rate, cognition, and task performance and that heart-rate change was positively related to the cognitive and behavioral measures. Regression analyses suggested that a cognitive-affective mechanism may mediate the goal-difficulty-performance relation. Discussion is focused on the theoretical and practical implications of integrating an arousal concept within goal-setting theory.

Effect of Goal Difficulty on Motor Performance: A Replication Across Tasks and Subjects

The purpose of this investigation was to determine if setting unrealistic goals would produce any significant decreases in motivation and performance. To add external validity to the findings, two experiments were conducted; one used an endurance task with children, and the other used a basketball-shooting task with college students. Subjects were matched on baseline assessments and randomly assigned to one of several goal-setting conditions—from goals that were easy to those that were unrealistic and virtually impossible. A do-your-best control condition was employed in each experiment. Results from both experiments revealed no significant between-group differences for either the sit-up task or the 3-minute shooting task. Questionnaire results indicated that subjects accepted their goals and tried hard to reach them. Although subjects placed in unrealistic-goal conditions did perceive their goal as being more difficult, this did not produce any decrements in their motivation. Results are discussed in terms of previous research in sport and industrial settings concerning the goal-attainability notion.

Effect of Goal Difficulty and Positive Reinforcement on Endurance Performance

The present investigation tested the interactive effects of goal difficulty and positive reinforcement in the form of verbal persuasion on endurance performance. Two experiments were conducted in laboratory and field settings. In Experiment 1, subjects (n=87) were assigned to a realistic or an unrealistic goal condition and either received or did not receive positive reinforcement while performing the 3-minute sit-up test over the course of 5 weeks. In addition, two control conditions were utilized including a do-your-best group and a no-treatment control group. Results indicated no significant main or interaction effects for the goal setting or positive reinforcement conditions. In Experiment 2, subjects (n=120) squeezed a hand dynamometer for as long as they could. Experimental conditions were similar to those in Experiment 1 except that the verbal persuasion was individualized since it was group oriented in the first experiment. Results again indicated no significant between-subjects main effects or interactions. Questionnaires revealed that subjects accepted their assigned goals, tried extremely hard, were committed to achieving their goals, and felt their goals were important. Results are discussed in terms of the goal attainability notion (Garland, 1983) and self-efficacy theory (Bandura, 1977). Future directions for research are offered.

An Examination of the Cognitive Mechanisms by Which Assigned Goals Affect Task Performance and Reactions to Performance1

In this study, cognitive mechanisms by which assigned goals affect task performance and reactions to performance were examined. Subjects working on a creativity task were assigned one of three performance goals varying in difficulty. Ratings of subjective probability of goal attainment, expected performance, expected satisfaction with goal attainment, and desired performance were obtained prior to each of five blocks of trials. Ratings of satisfaction with performance were obtained after each trial block and ratings of ability were obtained after all trials were completed. As predicted, with increased goal difficulty, subjective probability of goal attainment decreased, but expected performance, expected satisfaction with goal attainment, and desired performance increased. Contrary to prediction, the effect of goal difficulty on task performance was not significant. LISREL analyses revealed that goal difficulty exerted both positive (through expected and desired performance) and negative (through subjective probability of goal attainment) effects on performance. Goal difficulty had a negative effect on satisfaction with performance and ratings of perceived ability. The importance of identifying the cognitive mechanisms by which assigned goals affect performance and the need to consider consequences of assigned goals other than task performance are discussed.

Effects of Goal Difficulty, Goal-Setting Method, and Expected External Evaluation on Intrinsic Motivation

Effects of Goal Difficulty, Goal-Setting Method, and Expected External Evaluation on Intrinsic Motivation

The effects of goal difficulty on performance: a field experiment.

Abstract : Perceptions of a goal in an area as challenging, easy, and impossible did not produce performance improvement in that order in the area; nor did performance in the other area follow the reverse order. Sample size was insufficient to test the greater effect to two difficult goals on production of impossible perceptions. Support was provided for the proposition that difficult goals perceived as impossible produced poorer performance improvement than goals perceived either as easy or challenging. Further analysis of the data revealed that, had the performance hypotheses been stated in the absence of perception -- i.e., difficult goals will produce either very good or very poor performance relative to normal goals -- confirmation would have been obtained. Futhermore, difficult goals in an area appeared to be associated with extremes in performance when the other area had a difficult goal, but this effect was not observed with a normal goal in the second area. Finally, although perceptions were not successful in predicting performance in one area, the combined performance in the two areas could be represented quite well as a linear function of the goal perceptions in the two areas. (Author)