Effectively Protected Research Articles

Rights of Complainants Before the European Commission—a Critical Analysis

Third-party complainants play a crucial role in the enforcement of competition rules.1 As the European Commission itself noted, ‘[t]he complainant can help the Commission in supplying evidence of the anticompetitive practice and thus in establishing the infringement’.2 Given the authority’s limited resources, which result in a limited ability to conduct an ongoing screening of several markets, complaints are the most important source of information for the Commission. Unsurprisingly, the landmark decisions issued in recent years, e.g. Google Shopping, were driven by complaints filed by several market participants.3 ... Against this background, one should expect the legal position of complainants during antitrust proceedings before the Commission to be effectively protected. A lack of such protection can result in reduced incentive to file a complaint. This is even more relevant for less affluent victims for whom it is sometimes difficult to obtain specialised legal support or to make successful private enforcement claims and who are therefore even more dependent on the enforcement by the Commission. On the other hand, there are arguments for limiting the procedural rights of complainants, which are focused on the efficiency of proceedings and good management of resources.4 In theory, a balance is struck between incentivising complaints and the usage of the Commission’s resources through prioritising cases or choosing criteria to reject specific complaints.5 We would like to take a critical view of this balance through the lens of effective judicial protection of complainants’ rights.6

Modified DNA vaccine confers improved humoral immune response and effective virus protection against SARS-CoV-2 delta variant

Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), has led to a global pandemic. New technologies have been utilized to develop several types of vaccines to prevent the spread of SARS-CoV-2 infection, including mRNA vaccines. Our group previously developed an effective DNA-based vaccine. However, emerging SARS-CoV-2 variants of concern (VOCs), such as the delta variant, have escaped mutations against vaccine-induced neutralizing antibodies. This suggests that modified vaccines accommodating VOCs need to be developed promptly. Here, we first modified the current DNA vaccine to enhance antigenicity. Compared with the parental DNA vaccine, the modified version (GP∆-DNA vaccine) induced rapid antibody production. Next, we updated the GP∆-DNA vaccine to spike glycoprotein of the delta variant (GP∆-delta DNA vaccine) and compared the efficacy of different injection routes, namely intramuscular injection using a needle and syringe and intradermal injection using a pyro-drive jet injector (PJI). We found that the levels of neutralizing antibodies induced by the intradermal PJI injection were higher than intramuscular injection. Furthermore, the PJI-injected GP∆-delta DNA vaccine effectively protected human angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (hACE2) knock-in mice from delta-variant infection. These results indicate that the improved DNA vaccine was effective against emerging VOCs and was a potential DNA vaccine platform for future VOCs or global pandemics.

EphA4 targeting agents protect motor neurons from cell death induced by amyotrophic lateral sclerosis -astrocytes

SummaryAmyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is a degenerative disease that progressively destroys motor neurons (MNs). Earlier studies identified EphA4, a receptor tyrosine kinase, as a possible disease-modifying gene. The complex interplay between the EphA4 receptor and its ephrin ligands in motor neurons and astrocytes has not yet been fully elucidated and includes a putative pro-apoptotic activity of the unbound receptor compared to ephrin-bound receptor. We recently reported that astrocytes from patients with ALS induce cell death in co-cultured MNs. Here we found that first-generation synthetic EphA4 agonistic agent 123C4, effectively protected MNs when co-cultured with reactive astrocytes from patients with ALS from multiple subgroups (sALS and mutant SOD1). Newer generation and more potent EphA4 agonistic agents 150D4, 150E8, and 150E7 provided effective protection at a lower therapeutic dose. Combined, the data suggest that the development of EphA4 agonistic agents provides potentially a promising therapeutic strategy for patients with ALS.

Safety and protective capability of an inactivated SARS-CoV-2 vaccine on pregnancy, lactation and the growth of offspring in hACE2 mice

The mass inoculation of a severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) vaccine to induce herd immunity is one of the most effective measures to fight COVID-19. The vaccination of pregnant women cannot only avoid or reduce the probability of infectious diseases, but also offers the most effective and direct protection for neonates by means of passive immunization. However, there is no randomized clinical data to ascertain whether the inactivated vaccination of pregnant women or women of childbearing age can affect conception and the fetus. We found that human angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (hACE2) mice that were vaccinated with two doses of CoronaVac (an inactivated SARS-CoV-2 vaccine) before and during pregnancy exhibited normal weight changes and reproductive performance indices; the physical development of their offspring was also normal. Following intranasal inoculation with SARS-CoV-2, pregnant mice in the immunization group all survived; reproductive performance indices and the physical development of offspring were all normal. In contrast, mice in the non-immunization group all died before delivery. Analyses showed that inoculation of CoronaVac was safe and did not exert any significant effects on pregnancy, lactation, or the growth of offspring in hACE2 mice. Vaccination effectively protected the pregnant mice against SARS-CoV-2 infection and had no adverse effects on the growth and development of the offspring, thus suggesting that inoculation with an inactivated SARS-CoV-2 vaccine may be an effective strategy to prevent infection in pregnant women.

Digital Integrity: A Foundation for Digital Rights and the New Manifestation of Human Dignity

Abstract The article is devoted to the research of the problematic aspects and modern challenges of data protection in the digital age from the perspective of the digital integrity of the person. We believe that personal data cannot be effectively protected as components of digital integrity of the person in the context of regulation of a separate right to personal data protection, which, in its turn, acts more as a tool of market regulation rather than a classical fundamental right. We argue that the consideration of digital integrity as a new foundation for digital rights and as a new manifestation of the restrictive concept of human dignity may help increase the level of effective protection of the person in the digital sphere as well as properly cover the existing gaps in the protection of the digital rights of the person.

Butterflies in trouble: The effectiveness of Natura 2000 network in preventing habitat loss and population declines of endangered species in urban area

• Valuable habitats in urban areas are under anthropogenic pressure. • Across the 20 years of study the number of habitat patches decreased twofold. • Status of protected species does not guarantee proper protection. • Establishment of Natura 2000 sites ensures stability of populations of focal species. • Existing populations of protected species decline outside Natura 2000 sites. Habitat deterioration and biodiversity decline is progressing worldwide. However, these effects may be somewhat mitigated in urban areas, which are strongly exposed to anthropogenic pressure. The protected sites may here impede habitat loss and serve as effective tool of biodiversity conservation. The aim of this study was to test if location (inside/outside Natura 2000 sites) and size of habitat fragments affect the habitat loss and population trends in metapopulations of three Phengaris butterflies exposed to urbanization pressure. Across 20 years of study the number of habitat patches decreased by half, mainly outside N2000 sites. Total area of available habitat decreased by 13% for P. teleius and P. nausithous butterflies, and by 21% for P. alcon . Negative population trends were observed for all three species at small and medium-size habitat patches located outside N2000 sites as well as at small patches inside N2000 sites. The existing populations appear to be vulnerable outside N2000 sites. Our findings indicate that N2000 sites fulfill their protective function in halting population loss of species of high conservation interest and effective protection of intact habitats may support urban biodiversity. Nevertheless, there is an urgent need to expand the existing protected areas in order to save remnant local populations from their imminent extinctions in near future, as the species legal protection is not effective beyond N2000 sites. As meadow habitats serve a whole range of ecosystem services, their remnants deserve to be effectively protected in urbanized areas.

Decay resistance of wood treated with copper oxide nanoparticles synthesised using leaf extracts of Lantana camara L. and Nerium oleander L.

ABSTRACT Owing to the expensive and toxic nature of physical and chemical methods employed in the synthesis of commercially available metal nanoparticles used in wood protection, researchers are in search of non-toxic methods for nanoparticle synthesis. The present study involves biological synthesis of copper oxide nanoparticles using leaf extracts of Lantana camara L. and Nerium oleander L. The synthesised copper oxide nanoparticles were characterised using Scanning Electron Microscopy coupled with EDAX. The efficacy of formulations, containing leaf extracts and copper oxide nanoparticles, is screened against wood decay fungi Trametes hirsuta (White-rot) and Oligoporus placenta (brown-rot). Similarly, the efficacies of CuSO4. 5H2O (0.5%), CuO (0.5%) nanoparticle and CuO (0.5%) were also tested. Results indicated that the formulation of Lantana camara leaf extract and CuO nanoparticles effectively protected the treated rubberwood from the attack of both white-rot and brown-rot, whereas the formulation of Nerium oleander leaf extract and CuO nanoparticles protected from brown-rot attack only. Since test chemicals and leaf extracts alone were not effective against decay fungi, the protective effect of the formulation can be attributed to the synergistic effect of the intrinsic property of leaf extracts and the biocidal property of copper oxide nanoparticles resulting in an effective wood protectant.

A Live-Attenuated Zika Virus Vaccine with High Production Capacity Confers Effective Protection in Neonatal Mice.

Zika virus (ZIKV) infection during pregnancy has been linked to congenital abnormalities, such as microcephaly in infants. An efficacious vaccine is desirable for preventing the potential recurrence of ZIKV epidemic. Here, we report the generation of an attenuated ZIKV (rGZ02a) that has sharply decreased virulence in mice but grows to high titers in Vero cells, a widely approved cell line for manufacturing human vaccines. Compared to the wild-type ZIKV (GZ02) and a plasmid-launched rGZ02p, rGZ02a has 3 unique amino acid alterations in the envelope (E, S304F), nonstructural protein 1 (NS1, R103K), and NS5 (W637R). rGZ02a is more sensitive to type I interferon than GZ02 and rGZ02p, and causes no severe neurological disorders in either wild-type neonatal C57BL/6 mice or type I interferon receptor knockout (Ifnar1-/-) C57BL/6 mice. Immunization with rGZ02a elicits robust inhibitory antibody responses with a certain long-term durability. Neonates born to the immunized dams are effectively protected against ZIKV-caused neurological disorders and brain damage. rGZ02a as a booster vaccine greatly improves the protective immunity primed by Ad2-prME, an adenovirus-vectored vaccine expressing ZIKV prM and E proteins. Our results illustrate that rGZ02a-induced maternal immunity can be transferred to the neonates and confer effective protection. Hence, rGZ02a may be developed as an alternative live-attenuated vaccine and warrants further evaluation. IMPORTANCE Zika virus (ZIKV), a mosquito-borne flavivirus that has caused global outbreaks since 2013, is associated with severe neurological disorders, such as Guillian-Barré syndrome in adults and microcephaly in infants. The ZIKV epidemic has gradually subsided, but a safe and effective vaccine is still desirable to prevent its potential recurrence, especially in countries of endemicity with competent mosquito vectors. Here, we describe a novel live-attenuated ZIKV, rGZ02a, that carries 3 unique amino acid alterations compared to the wild-type GZ02 and a plasmid-launched rGZ02p. The growth capacity of rGZ02a is comparable to GZ02 in Vero cells, but the pathogenicity is significantly attenuated in two mice models. Immunization with rGZ02a elicits robust inhibitory antibody responses in the dams and effectively protects their offspring against ZIKV disease. Importantly, in a heterologous prime-boost regimen, rGZ02a effectively boosts the protective immunity primed by an adenovirus-vectored vaccine. Thus, rGZ02a is a promising candidate for a live-attenuated ZIKV vaccine.

Evaluating the social and ecological effectiveness of partially protected marine areas.

Marine protected areas (MPAs) are a primary tool for the stewardship, conservation, and restoration of marine ecosystems, yet 69% of global MPAs are only partially protected (i.e., are open to some form of fishing). Although fully protected areas have well‐documented outcomes, including increased fish diversity and biomass, the effectiveness of partially protected areas is contested. Partially protected areas may provide benefits in some contexts and may be warranted for social reasons, yet social outcomes often depend on MPAs achieving their ecological goals to distinguish them from open areas and justify the cost of protection. We assessed the social perceptions and ecological effectiveness of 18 partially protected areas and 19 fully protected areas compared with 19 open areas along 7000 km of coast of southern Australia. We used mixed methods, gathering data via semistructured interviews, site surveys, and Reef Life (underwater visual census) surveys. We analyzed qualitative data in accordance with grounded theory and quantitative data with multivariate and univariate linear mixed‐effects models. We found no social or ecological benefits for partially protected areas relative to open areas in our study. Partially protected areas had no more fish, invertebrates, or algae than open areas; were poorly understood by coastal users; were not more attractive than open areas; and were not perceived to have better marine life than open areas. These findings provide an important counterpoint to some large‐scale meta‐analyses that conclude partially protected areas can be ecologically effective but that draw this conclusion based on narrower measures. We argue that partially protected areas act as red herrings in marine conservation because they create an illusion of protection and consume scarce conservation resources yet provide little or no social or ecological gain over open areas. Fully protected areas, by contrast, have more fish species and biomass and are well understood, supported, and valued by the public. They are perceived to have better marine life and be improving over time in keeping with actual ecological results. Conservation outcomes can be improved by upgrading partially protected areas to higher levels of protection including conversion to fully protected areas.

Blockage of regulatory T cells augments induction of protective immune responses by influenza virus-like particles in aged mice

Elderly humans over 65 years old are at great risk to pathogenesis by influenza virus infection. However, although influenza vaccines provide effective protection in healthy young adults, protection of elderly adults is substantially lower even with a good match between the vaccine and the circulating influenza virus. To gain insight of the underlying mechanism for the reduced immunogenicity of influenza vaccines in the aged population, we investigated immunogenicity of influenza virus-like particle vaccines in aged mice, which represent a useful model for studying aging associated impairment in immune responses. Specifically, we investigated the effect of inhibiting regulatory T cells in aged mice on induction of protective immune responses by influenza vaccines. Our results showed that injecting anti-CD25 antibodies could down-regulate CD25 on the surface of regulatory T cells and significantly increase the levels of antibody responses induced by VLP immunization in aged mice. Further, the profiles of antibody responses were also changed towards Th1 type by regulatory T cell blockage in aged mice. Moreover, aged mice that were treated by anti-CD25 antibodies prior to vaccination were more effectively protected against lethal influenza virus challenge.

Effective Protection Induced by a Monovalent DNA Vaccine against Dengue Virus (DV) Serotype 1 and a Bivalent DNA Vaccine against DV1 and DV2 in Mice.

Dengue virus (DV) is the causal pathogen of dengue fever, which is one of the most rapidly spread mosquito-borne disease worldwide and has become a severe public health problem. Currently, there is no specific treatment for dengue; thus, a vaccine would be an effective countermeasure to reduce the morbidity and mortality. Although, the chimeric Yellow fever dengue tetravalent vaccine has been approved in some countries, it is still necessary to develop safer, more effective, and less costly vaccines. In this study, a DNA vaccine candidate pVAX1-D1ME expressing the prME protein of DV1 was inoculated in BALB/c mice via intramuscular injection or electroporation, and the immunogenicity and protection were evaluated. Compared with traditional intramuscular injection, administration with 50 μg pVAX1-D1ME via electroporation with three immunizations induced persistent humoral and cellular immune responses and effectively protected mice against lethal DV1 challenge. In addition, immunization with a bivalent vaccine consisting of pVAX1-D1ME and pVAX1-D2ME via electroporation generated a balanced IgG response and neutralizing antibodies against DV1 and DV2 and could protect mice from lethal challenge with DV1 and DV2. This study sheds new light on developing a dengue tetravalent DNA vaccine.

Room-temperature aqueous plasma electrolyzing Al2O3 nano-coating on carbon fiber

A novel room-temperature aqueous plasma electrolysis technique has been developed in order to prepared Al2O3 nano-coating on each fiber within a carbon fiber bundle. The microstructure and formation mechanism of the Al2O3 nano-coating were systematically investigated. The oxidation resistance and tensile strength of the Al2O3-coated carbon fiber was measured at elevated temperatures. It showed that the dense Al2O3 nano-coating was relatively uniformly deposited with 80–120nm in thickness. The Al2O3 nano-coating effectively protected the carbon fiber, evidenced by the slower oxidation rate and significant increase of the burn-out temperature from 800°C to 950°C. Although the bare carbon fiber remained ∼25wt.% after oxidation at 700°C for 20min, a full destruction was observed, evidenced by the ∼0GPa of the tensile strength, compared to ∼1.3GPa of the Al2O3-coated carbon fiber due to the effective protection from the Al2O3 nano-coating. The formation mechanism of the Al2O3 nano-coating on carbon fiber was schematically established mainly based on the physic-chemical effect in the cathodic plasma arc zone.

Enteric coated spheres produced by extrusion/spheronization provide effective gastric protection and efficient release of live therapeutic bacteria

We present a novel but simple enteric coated sphere formulation containing probiotic bacteria (Lactobacillus casei). Oral delivery of live bacterial cells (LBC) requires live cells to survive firstly manufacturing processes and secondly GI microbicidal defenses including gastric acid. We incorporated live L. casei directly in the granulation liquid, followed by granulation, extrusion, spheronization, drying and spray coating to produce dried live probiotic spheres. A blend of MCC, calcium-crosslinked alginate, and lactose was developed that gave improved live cell survival during manufacturing, and gave excellent protection from gastric acid plus rapid release in intestinal conditions. No significant loss of viability was observed in all steps except drying, which resulted in approximately 1log loss of viable cells. Eudragit coating was used to protect dried live cells from acid, and microcrystalline cellulose (MCC) was combined with sodium alginate to achieve efficient sphere disintegration leading to rapid and complete bacterial cell release in intestinal conditions. Viability and release of L. casei was evaluated in vitro in simulated GI conditions. Uncoated spheres gave partial acid protection, but enteric coated spheres effectively protected dried probiotic LBC from acid for 2h, and subsequently released all viable cells within 1h of transfer into simulated intestinal fluid.

Assessment of the safety and efficacy of an attenuated live vaccine based on highly pathogenic porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus.

The safety and efficacy of the JXA1-R vaccine, an attenuated strain of highly pathogenic porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (HP-PRRSV), were examined using an intramuscular challenge model in piglets. The JXA1-R vaccine was obtained by passing HP-PRRSV JXA1 through Marc-145 cells (82nd passage). Genomic sequence comparisons showed that strain JXA1-R and its parental strain, JXA1, differ by 47 amino acids, and most of these differences are scattered throughout the PRRSV genome. Four-week-old PRRSV-free piglets were inoculated intramuscularly with JXA1-R vaccine (10(3.0), 10(4.0), 10(5.0), 10(6.0), and 10(7.0) 50% tissue culture infective doses [TCID50]/ml for groups 1 to 5, respectively) and then challenged intramuscularly with the 5th passage virus of JXA1 virus (JXA1-F5, 3 ml × 10(4.5) TCID50/ml) 28 days after inoculation. The humoral immune response, swine growth, clinical signs, and differential organ lesions were monitored. The results showed that all vaccinated piglets had a perceptible humoral immune response to vaccination after day 7, which then promptly increased, almost reaching the maximum sample/positive (S/P) ratio value at 28 days postimmunization. Viremia detection indicated that the viral replication levels of the challenge virus in the immunized groups (immunization doses ≥10(4.0)/ml) were significantly lower than that of the virus-challenged unvaccinated control group. Piglets in groups 2 to 5 were effectively protected against lethal HP-PRRSV infection and did not show any obvious changes in body temperature or clinical signs of disease at any point during the experiment. However, two of five piglets in group 1 showed mild pathological lesions and transitory high fever. These results suggest that JXA1-R (TCID50/ml ≥10(4.0)) is sufficiently attenuated and can provide effective protection against the lethal wild-type HP-PRRSV.

Development and efficacy of an attenuated Vibrio harveyi vaccine candidate with cross protectivity against Vibrio alginolyticus

Vibrio harveyi is a Gram-negative bacterial pathogen that can infect a wide range of marine animals. In previous studies, we have reported a virulent V. harveyi strain, T4D. In the present study, an attenuated mutant of T4D, T4DM, was obtained by selection of rifampicin resistance. Compared to the wild type, T4DM was different in whole-cell protein profile and much slower in growth rate when cultured in stress conditions caused by iron depletion. Virulence analysis showed that compared to T4D, T4DM exhibited a dramatically increased median lethal dose, impaired tissue dissemination capacity, defective hemolytic activity, and significantly reduced resistance against the killing effect of host serum. To examine the potential of T4DM as a live attenuated vaccine, Japanese flounder (Paralichthys olivaceus) were vaccinated with T4DM via intraperitoneal injection or immersion. The results showed that at one and two months post-vaccination, fish administered with T4DM via both approaches, in particular that of immersion, were effectively protected against not only V. harveyi but also Vibrio alginolyticus, another important fish pathogen. Microbiological analysis showed that following immersion vaccination, T4DM was recovered from the internal organs of the vaccinated fish in a time-dependent manner within the first 6 days post-vaccination. Serum antibodies against V. harveyi and V. alginolyticus were detected in T4DM-vaccinated fish, and, compared to serum from control fish, serum from T4DM-vaccinated fish was significantly enhanced in bactericidal activity. These results indicate that T4DM is an attenuated strain with residual infectivity and that T4DM can induce effective cross-species protection against both V. harveyi and V. alginolyticus when used as a live immersion vaccine.

Immunisation with the glycolytic enzyme enolase confers effective protection against Candida albicans infection in mice

Candida albicans is an opportunistic human fungal pathogen that continues to be a leading cause of candidal infections in immunocompromised hosts. Enolase, an important glycolytic enzyme located on the cell wall of C. albicans, was cloned, purified, and characterized by molecular cloning, affinity chromatography and Western blotting. C57BL/6J mice were immunized with recombinant enolase subcutaneously every two weeks, and the protective effect against systemic challenge evaluated by fungal burdens in target organs, titres of specific antibodies to enolase, and by levels of Th1/2 cytokines in serum. After challenge with C. albicans strains SC5314 and 3630, fungal burdens in the liver, kidney, brain, spleen and lung were significantly decreased in immunized mice. Histopathological assessment demonstrated that enolase protected the tissue structure, and decreased the infiltration of inflammatory cells. The titres of enolase-specific IgG1 and IgG2a in the immune serum reached up to 1:51200. Furthermore, opsonization with immune serum resulted in enhanced killing of both 3630 and SC5314 by murine neutrophils. Levels of IL-12 and IL-8 in the immune serum increased, whereas the concentration of the Th2 cytokine, IL-10, was significantly higher in immunized mice compared to the control group. It was concluded that recombinant enolase effectively protected mice against disseminated candidiasis, and may be a promising target for vaccination against different strains of C. albicans.

Liability for Misrepresentation – European Lessons on Causation from the Netherlands

Listed companies may be liable to investors for misrepresentation. A causal connection between the investor's alleged harm and the misstatement or omission will need to be established for a successful damage claim. This article addresses causation, specifically the causal connection between the misstatement (or omission) and the investment decision. Proving this causal connection is often problematic, which raises the question how investors can be effectively protected without inviting excessive litigation. Recently, the Dutch Supreme Court has accepted an indirect causal connection as sufficient and has adopted a presumption on behalf of investors on favorable terms in a prospectus liability case. A showing of a material misstatement by investors activates the presumption. The Dutch Supreme Court justifies this by reference to the Prospectus Directive, which it interprets as requiring an effective protection of (potential) investors. The influence of the Prospectus Directive on the law of causation can be relevant for other European jurisdictions as well. The approach to adopt a presumption based on European disclosure directives could extend beyond prospectus liability cases to all lawsuits alleging misrepresentation on the secondary market. These developments are discussed and a comparison is made between the law of the Netherlands, the US and Germany.

Antigenotoxic potential of Gymnema montanum leaves on DNA damage in human peripheral blood lymphocytes and HL‐60 cell line

In this study we have evaluated the genoprotective effect of the ethanol extract of Gymnema montanum (GLEt) leaves in human peripheral blood lymphocytes and HL-60 cell line in vitro using the comet assay. DNA damage was induced by treating the cells with H(2)O(2) and methyl methane sulphonate (MMS). GLEt treatment effectively protected the lymphocytes and HL-60 cell line from H(2)O(2)-induced oxidative DNA damage in a dose-dependent manner whereas it was not effective against alkylative DNA damage caused by MMS. The global percent repair efficiency also showed that both pre- and post- GLEt treatment provided effective protection against H(2)O(2) induced DNA damage but not as effective against MMS. At 200 microg ml(-1) level, its repair capacity against H(2)O(2) induced DNA damage was comparable to that of vitamin-C (100 microM). Furthermore, exposure to GLEt reduced the formation of apoptotic cells caused by H(2)O(2), which was demonstrated by the decreased sub-G1-DNA content in cell cycle analysis and apoptotic frequencies of lymphocytes in an annexin-V binding assay. In addition, GLEt was found to have effective peroxide scavenging ability in dose-dependent manner. The protective efficiency of the extract was found to be directly proportional to its total phenolic content. The present study indicates that G. montanum leaves are a significant source of phytochemicals with antigenotoxic and antioxidant activity, and thus has potential therapeutic use.

Protection against lethal challenge by Ebola virus-like particles produced in insect cells

Ebola virus-like particles (VLPs) were produced in insect cells using a recombinant baculovirus expression system and their efficacy for protection against Ebola virus infection was investigated. Two immunizations with 50 μg Ebola VLPs (high dose) induced a high level of antibodies against Ebola GP that exhibited strong neutralizing activity against GP-mediated virus infection and conferred complete protection of vaccinated mice against lethal challenge by a high dose of mouse-adapted Ebola virus. In contrast, two immunizations with 10 μg Ebola VLPs (low dose) induced 5-fold lower levels of antibodies against GP and these mice were not protected against lethal Ebola virus challenge, similar to control mice that were immunized with 50 μg SIV Gag VLPs. However, the antibody responses against GP were boosted significantly after a third immunization with 10 μg Ebola VLPs to similar levels as those induced by two immunizations with 50 μg Ebola VLPs, and vaccinated mice were also effectively protected against lethal Ebola virus challenge. Furthermore, serum viremia levels in protected mice were either below the level of detection or significantly lower compared to the viremia levels in control mice. These results show that effective protection can be achieved by immunization with Ebola VLPs produced in insect cells, which give high production yields, and lend further support to their development as an effective vaccine strategy against Ebola virus.

EU Trade Policies: Benchmarking Protection in a General Equilibrium Framework

This paper deals with the EU's trade policy with two objectives: on the one hand, we study the performance of EU's preferential agreements in granting their partners improved market access; on the other hand, we assess the extent to which domestic sectors are effectively protected. As far as the first objective is concerned, we construct bilateral indicators of protection based on the applied tariffs faced by each exporter. In order to do this, an index of trade policy restrictiveness is computed, using the Mercantilistic Trade Restrictiveness Index as the tariff aggregator. We also analyze the protection granted to each sector by the existing tariff structure. In this respect, we compute effective rates of protection that overcome the well-known theoretical shortcomings of the traditional definition (Output Effective Rate of Protection). The analysis is based on a comparative static applied general equilibrium model (Global Trade Analysis Project) and on the most recent version (release 6) of the related database. Results are obtained with reference to the situation existing in 2001, but the assessment of protection is carried out for the enlarged EU. Overall, it appears that notwithstanding the rhetoric about preferential access, several developing countries are the ones facing the highest hurdles in getting into the EU markets. Both bilateral protection and effective protection rates are broadly consistent with the evolution of the WTO negotiations: the strongest demands from developing countries in terms of market access in the EU have less to do with the overall applied MFN tariffs on industrial products than the reduction of distortions affecting trade in agriculture.