Effective Predator Research Articles

A New Aspect of Predator–Prey Dynamics: The Case of a Livestock Guardian Dog Predating upon an Invasive Coypu in Lake Kerkini, Greece

Invasive alien species frequently encounter limited natural predation pressure in their non-native ranges, which can contribute significantly to their unchecked proliferation and adverse ecological impacts. Here, we document a novel instance of a livestock guardian dog preying upon an adult coypu (Myocastor coypus) in Lake Kerkini, Greece—a significant observation given the coypu’s status as a prominent invasive species with few natural predators in Europe. The coypu’s presence in the region, coupled with the absence of effective predation among others, has allowed it to establish a robust population and exert considerable pressure on local ecosystems. This novel observation not only highlights an unusual predator–prey interaction involving a domestic mammal traditionally used for livestock management but also provides insights into understanding how domestic animals might inadvertently influence the dynamics of invasive species, potentially serving as a complementary tool in conservation management. By demonstrating that domestic dogs could play a role in controlling invasive species populations, our findings introduce a previously unconsidered aspect of invasive species management with conservation implications.

Predation Efficiency and Biological Control Potential of Micromus angulatus Against Aphis craccivora

Micromus angulatus (Neuroptera: Hemerobiidae) is a widely distributed and highly effective predator that shows promise as a biological control agent against agricultural pests, particularly Aphis craccivora, the cowpea aphid, which threatens leguminous crops globally. This study aimed to evaluate the predation behaviour, search efficiency, and intraspecific interference of M. angulatus at different developmental stages, including first- to third-instar larvae and adults, in controlling adult A. craccivora populations. The results demonstrated that all developmental stages of M. angulatus exhibited predatory behaviour towards adult aphids, with the functional response fitting the Holling Type II model. The instantaneous attack rates for first-, second-, and third-instar larvae and adults were 1.0017, 1.0448, 0.9581, and 0.9508, respectively; the handling times were 0.0158, 0.0051, 0.0016, and 0.0011 days, respectively; and the theoretical maximum daily predation rates were 63.2911, 196.0784, 625, and 909.0909 aphids, respectively. The pest control efficacies were 63.3989, 204.8672, 598.8311, and 864.3192, respectively. The search efficiency at each developmental stage was negatively correlated with aphid density, which decreased as the prey density increased, with second-instar larvae showing the greatest decrease and adults the least. When the aphid density was fixed, the daily predation rate of individual M. angulatus decreased with increasing conspecific density, indicating that predation was affected by its own density, with the interference effect equation being E = 0.6194P−0.87. These findings indicate that M. angulatus, especially in the third-instar larval and adult stages, has considerable potential as a biological control agent for managing A. craccivora populations in agricultural settings. This study contributes valuable insights for developing sustainable agricultural practices by decreasing reliance on chemical pesticides.

Localized and Long-Lasting Adaptation in Dragonfly Target-Detecting Neurons.

Some visual neurons in the dragonfly (Hemicordulia tau) optic lobe respond to small, moving targets, likely underlying their fast pursuit of prey and conspecifics. In response to repetitive targets presented at short intervals, the spiking activity of these "small target motion detector" (STMD) neurons diminishes over time. Previous experiments limited this adaptation by including intertrial rest periods of varying durations. However, the characteristics of this effect have never been quantified. Here, using extracellular recording techniques lasting for several hours, we quantified both the spatial and temporal properties of STMD adaptation. We found that the time course of adaptation was variable across STMD units. In any one STMD, a repeated series led to more rapid adaptation, a minor accumulative effect more akin to habituation. Following an adapting stimulus, responses recovered quickly, though the rate of recovery decreased nonlinearly over time. We found that the region of adaptation is highly localized, with targets displaced by ∼2.5° eliciting a naive response. Higher frequencies of target stimulation converged to lower levels of sustained response activity. We determined that adaptation itself is a target-tuned property, not elicited by moving bars or luminance flicker. As STMD adaptation is a localized phenomenon, dependent on recent history, it is likely to play an important role in closed-loop behavior where a target is foveated in a localized region for extended periods of the pursuit duration.

Ant impacts on global patterns of bird elevational diversity.

Using data on bird species elevational distributions from the world's mountain ranges, bird diets, and the distribution of the ant genus Oecophylla, we report that global patterns in bird elevational diversity show signals of competition with ants. Oecophylla is an abundant and effective predator of invertebrates, preying on the same species that invertivorous birds feed on. In mountain ranges with Oecophylla present in the foothills, the maximum species richness of invertivorous birds (but not other trophic guilds) occurs, on average, at 960 m, ca. 450 m higher than in mountain ranges without Oecophylla, resulting in a mid-elevation peak in bird species richness. Where Oecophylla is absent, bird species richness for all guilds generally show monotonic declines with increasing elevation. We argue that Oecophylla reduces prey density for invertivorous birds and that low prey abundance reduces invertivorous bird density, which in turn is correlated with lower bird species richness. These findngs suggest that competition between distantly related taxa can set range limits, leading to emergent diversity patterns over large scales.

The chromosome-level genome assembly of Aphidoletes aphidimyza Rondani (Diptera: Cecidomyiidae)

Aphidoletes aphidimyza is widely recognized as an effective predator of aphids in agricultural systems. However, there is limited understanding of its predation mechanisms. In this study, we generated a high-quality chromosome level of the A. aphidimyza genome by combining PacBio, Illumina, and Hi-C data. The genome has a size of 192.08 Mb, with a scaffold N50 size of 46.85 Mb, and 99.08% (190.35 Mb) of the assembly is located on four chromosomes. The BUSCO analysis of our assembly indicates a completeness of 97.8% (n = 1,367), including 1,307 (95.6%) single-copy BUSCOs and 30 (2.2%) duplicated BUSCOs. Additionally, we annotated a total of 13,073 protein-coding genes, 18.43% (35.40 Mb) repetitive elements, and 376 non-coding RNAs. Our study is the first time to report the chromosome-scale genome for the species of A. aphidimyza. It provides a valuable genomic resource for the molecular study of A. aphidimyza.

Using bioindicators to inform effective predator management for threatened species protection

AbstractIn Australia, most threatened species translocations conducted into areas where feral predators are present fail to establish viable, self‐sustaining populations despite intensive predator control. These translocations are occurring amidst a lack of understanding regarding the conditions required for native species to survive, including predator densities. This study investigated whether population trends of in situ common species could be used as bioindicators to determine the effectiveness of predator management for threatened species protection. We compared changes in capture rates of four small mammals and four reptile species inside and outside a predator‐proof reserve for 11 years after cat and fox removal to identify which species responded to cat and fox eradication at various time scales. We only used sites inside the reserve where threatened species had not yet been reintroduced to isolate the effects of cat and fox removal. The effectiveness of these bioindicators was then tested at an unfenced reserve where predators were controlled using baiting, trapping, and shooting. There was a significant increase in the abundance of native rodents (spinifex hopping mouse and Bolam's mouse) inside the fenced reserve compared to outside, however, these differences were not detected in the unfenced reserve possibly due to inadequate predator control or insufficient time for in situ species to recover with sustained predator control. Captures of the introduced house mouse were higher at sites inside the fenced reserve in some years, but the difference was not consistent. Native dunnarts and all four reptile species did not respond consistently over the 11‐year time frame at either reserve. Native rodent abundance was the best indicator of effective feral predator control and may provide a useful bioindicator for threatened species management, such as reintroductions.

Functional responses of two species of predatory mites (Acari: Phytoseiidae) to eggs and first-instar nymphs of Bactericera Gobica Logniova (Homoptera: Psyllidae).

The goji berry psyllid, Bactericera gobica Logniova (Homoptera: Psyllidae), is one of the most important pests on goji berry plants (Lycium barbarum L.), whose fruits are widely used in traditional Chinese medicine and food. However, chemical control is still the predominant control strategy of this pest. Recently, two species of predatory mites, Neoseiulus setarius Ma, Meng & Fan and Neoseiulus barkeri Hughes were found to be associated with B. gobica in China. To assess their predation potential against B. gobica, the functional responses of these two phytoseiid species feeding on different densities (2, 4, 8, 12, 16, 24 and 32 individuals) of B. gobica eggs and 1st instar nymphs were compared at a temperature of 25ºC ± 1º C. Logistic regression analysis revealed that both predatory mite species exhibited type Holling-II functional responses on eggs and 1st instar nymphs of B. gobica, with the predation number increased for both predators as the density of prey increased. Overall, N. setarius consumed more prey compared to N. barkeri across all levels of prey densities. Meanwhile, the highest attack rate (α = 0.0283), the lowest handling time (Th = 1.1324h prey- 1), and the highest estimated maximum predation rate (T/Th = 21.19 prey day- 1) were all observed for N. setarius fed with 1st instar nymphs of B. gobica. These findings suggest that it is worthy considering utilizing N. setarius and N. barkeri as candidate biocontrol agents of B. gobica, with N. setarius appearing to be a more effective predator than N. barkeri.

Controlling house fly populations under laboratory conditions: Hydrotaea aenescens larvae as effective predator

AbstractLarvae of Hydrotaea are facultative predators of larvae of flies commonly found in poultry farms, chicken and pig waste, and decaying carcasses. One species, the black dump fly, Hydrotaea aenescens (Wiedemann, 1830), coexists with the housefly Musca domestica (Linnaeus, 1758) in these environments and has been employed in the biological control of the housefly in the USA and Germany. To assess the predatory efficacy of H. aenescens larvae on M. domestica larvae, we conducted controlled laboratory experiments in which we selected larvae of different sizes of the larvae and the densities of both predator and prey. We set up the experiment using adult flies from a poultry farm and reared the larvae they produced in our laboratory. Our findings indicate that second‐ and third‐instar H. aenescens larvae effectively suppressed populations of housefly larvae under laboratory conditions, especially when the latter was smaller or the same size as the former. Under these ideal experimental conditions, a single H. aenescens larva consumed up to 29 larvae of M. domestica, potentially leading to a complete eradication of the housefly population at predator–prey density levels of 1:1 and 1:4, but only when considering both the natural mortality rate of M. domestica larvae and the additional mortality caused by H. aenescens larvae. These results corroborate a pattern previously observed in other predatory larvae and have important implications for biological control and integrated pest management programs targeting M. domestica in poultry and swine farms across South America.

Diversity of mosquito natural enemies and their feeding efficacy on Aedes vectors.

Mosquito-borne diseases are a major health issue among communities in Asia, and dengue has grown up as a serious public health concern in Sri Lanka with varying magnitude since 1960. With the realization of the failures and limitations of current vector control strategies, the authorities are moving towards simple, low-cost, and eco-friendly vector management methods. Thus, the present study was devised to evaluate the potential densities of mosquito natural enemies in natural water habitats in Galle district, Sri Lanka, and to investigate the feeding efficacy of prominent mosquito natural enemies on main dengue vectors (Aedes sp.) in a laboratory setting. The survey was carried out using eight sentinel sites in Galle district, and samples of mosquito natural enemies and mosquito larvae were collected, and then they were identified using taxonomic keys. Study records, the aquatic insects of Family Hydrometridae, Belostomatidae, Notonectidae, Nepidae, Ranatridae, and Corixidae as dominant mosquito natural enemies, and Libellulidae and Dytiscidae insects as sub-dominant families. The highest density of the family Hydrometridae was recorded in rural, natural inland, and rocky study sites. The order Hemiptera was recorded as the key order of the mosquitoes natural enemies in Galle district. The family Hydrometridae had the highest density of recorded mosquito natural enemies. Aedes aegypti and Ae. albopictus were recorded as abundant vector mosquitoes. Family Nepidae is the most effective natural mosquito predator on Ae. aegypti and Ae. albopictus, and this knowledge will be vital for implementing future biological control strategies for Aedes vectors in Sri Lanka.

Efficiency of three indigenous species of coccinellid predators for controlling aphids and whiteflies on cucumbers in greenhouses

Cucumber plants can be infested with many insect pests such as aphids, whiteflies, and thrips, especially in greenhouses, resulting in significant damage to the crops. This study investigated the efficacy of three species of coccinellids (Coccinella undecimpunctata, Coccinella septempunctata, and Hippodamia variegata), indigenous to the Taif region of Saudi Arabia, to control Bemisia tabaci whiteflies and Aphis gossypii aphids on cucumbers in greenhouses. The study was conducted with a release rate of five second-instar larvae of each coccinellid species per plant. One week after the first release of coccinellids, there were no significant differences among the treatment groups in terms of infestation rate, but all three groups differed significantly from the control group. After the first week, the B. tabaci and A. gossypii infestation rates decreased significantly in the H. variegata group compared with the other two coccinellid species, a trend that continued until the end of the experiment. These results suggested that H. variegata was the most effective of the three species at decreasing the B. tabaci population. After the second release of each coccinellid species, the reduction rates were >90% in all three groups, being significantly higher in the H. variegata group. Thus, these results suggest that second-instar larvae of all three coccinellid species would be effective predators of B. tabaci and A. gossypii on cucumbers in greenhouses, with those of H. variegata showing the greatest efficacy. Future research should focus on the effects of these predators on outdoor cucumber fields and on other crops grown in the Taif region.

Predatory Capacity of the Green Lacewing Chrysoperla zastrowi (Esben-Petersons) on Different Species of Aphids under Laboratory Conditions

Green lacewing, Chrysoperla zastrowi (Esben-Petersons) (Neuroptera: Chrysopidae) is the most effective polyphagous predator of different species of aphids and is commonly known as “aphid lion.” During the study, the green lacewing adults were collected from the flowers of different crop plants in Meerut region. The experiment on feeding potential of green lacewing was studied in the Bio-control Laboratory of Department of Entomology, Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel University of Agriculture & Technology, Meerut from November 2019 to March 2020. The known number of predatory larvae of green lacewings were fed with known number of six different species of live aphids. The total food consumption of a single larva of C. zastrowi were found to be in order of 180.00 ± 1.24 A. craccivora, 171.33 ± 4.42 A. gossypii, 157.67 ± 1.49 B. brassicae, 142.67 ± 2.36 L. erysimi, 131.34 ± 2.19 R. maidis and 119.67 ± 2.94 M. persicae. Results revealed that the third instar were found more voracious than other two instar.

Prospects for use of the predatory mite Transeius herbarius 1960) (Mesostigmata: sam. Phytoseiidae, subfamily. Amblyseiinae)

The predatory mite Transeius herbarius (Wainstein, 1960) isused as a specialized acariphage mainly on berry crops. In the openground, T. herbarius is one of the effective predators of strawberry(Tarsonemidae) and spider mites (Tetranychidae). The predator canpenetrate into the primordial, reproduces better in humid places, migrating2–3 meters per season. On strawberries effectively regulates the strawberrymites population and even uses proportionate female spider mites in thefood chain. The predator is amenable to breeding on loose substrate usingbarn mites of various species. High survival rate is found on industrialuterine plantings of garden strawberries in the open ground, with use ofcomplex of protective measures including insecticides. Due to the naturalsmall population of this predator in the fields, research and saturatingreleases in a normalized amount are required for optimal protection frompests.

Invasive European green crab (Carcinus maenas) predation in a Washington State estuary revealed with DNA metabarcoding.

Predation by invasive species can threaten local ecosystems and economies. The European green crab (Carcinus maenas), one of the most widespread marine invasive species, is an effective predator associated with clam and crab population declines outside of its native range. In the U.S. Pacific Northwest, green crab has recently increased in abundance and expanded its distribution, generating concern for estuarine ecosystems and associated aquaculture production. However, regionally-specific information on the trophic impacts of invasive green crab is very limited. We compared the stomach contents of green crabs collected on clam aquaculture beds versus intertidal sloughs in Willapa Bay, Washington, to provide the first in-depth description of European green crab diet at a particularly crucial time for regional management. We first identified putative prey items using DNA metabarcoding of stomach content samples. We compared diet composition across sites using prey presence/absence and an index of species-specific relative abundance. For eight prey species, we also calibrated metabarcoding data to quantitatively compare DNA abundance between prey taxa, and to describe an 'average' green crab diet at an intertidal slough versus a clam aquaculture bed. From the stomach contents of 61 green crabs, we identified 54 unique taxa belonging to nine phyla. The stomach contents of crabs collected from clam aquaculture beds were significantly different from the stomach contents of crabs collected at intertidal sloughs. Across all sites, arthropods were the most frequently detected prey, with the native hairy shore crab (Hemigrapsus oregonensis) the single most common prey item. Of the eight species calibrated with a quantitative model, two ecologically-important native species-the sand shrimp (Crangon franciscorum) and the Pacific staghorn sculpin (Leptocottus armatus)-had the highest average DNA abundance when detected in a stomach content sample. In addition to providing timely information on green crab diet, our research demonstrates the novel application of a recently developed model for more quantitative DNA metabarcoding. This represents another step in the ongoing evolution of DNA-based diet analysis towards producing the quantitative data necessary for modeling invasive species impacts.

Aspects of use and features of the predatorymite Neoseiulus longispinosus (Evans, 1952) (Mesostigmata: family Phytoseiidae, subfamily. Amblyseiinae) in comparison to N. californicus

The predatory mite Neoseiulus longispinosus (Evans, 1952) isused as a specialized acariphage on vegetable, flower and berry crops inAsia. In protected ground of European agriculture, N. californicus is one ofthe effective predators of spider mites (Tetranychidae). The periodicity ofattacks on the victim depends on the temperature. The predator prefers tohunt immature individuals of T. urticae, often ignoring adult female spidermites if there is a choice. N. longispinosus does not show preferencebetween eggs and T. urticae nymphs. However, as the density of the spidermite population increases, the predatory mite switches its diet from theeggs to its larvae and nymphs. Adult females of N. californicus exhibit atype 2 functional response to both eggs and T. urticae nymphs. Pyrethroidand avermectin substances are highly toxic to predator populations, despitelow acute toxicity of many other insecticides (Actara, Envidor, etc.).

Features description for the predatory mite Phytoseiulus persimilis Athias-Henriot, 1957 (Mesostigmata: subfam. Amblyseiinae)

The predatory mite Phytoseiulus persimilis A.-H. is used as aspecific acariphage on vegetable and flower crops. In protected ground P.persimilis is the most effective predator of twospotted spider mites (Tetranychidae). The scopes of pesticides use in the struggle withtwospotted spider mites – pests of food and flower crops – are limited bythe acaricides quantity. There are resistant pest races from which it ispossible to protect crops only with help of predaceous mites. The specialfeature of the P. persimilis use on protected ground is the rapid rate ofpopulation reproduction of the. The basis for the effective use of P. persimilis is the timely detection of twospotted spider mite foci sites andthe settlement of a certain number of predaceous mites there. On thebackdrop of the pesticides use, it is necessary to do surveys every 4–5days, at a temperature of 25 °C. This mite is widely used to protect gardenstrawberries, especially during tunnel cultivation. Flower crops (roses canbe taken as the example) are also effectively protected by phytoseiulus onshrub-shaped plants. However, flower plants under forcing treatmentrequire more drought-resistant acariphages.

The supercooling point depression is the leading cold tolerance strategy for the variegated ladybug, [Hippodamia variegata (Goezel)

The variegated ladybug, Hippodamia variegata is one of the most effective predators of various pests that hibernate as adult beetles. During the overwintering period from April 2021 to March 2022, we examined the supercooling point (SCP), cold tolerance, and physiological adaptations of beetles in Kerman, Iran. The beetles exhibited their greatest cold tolerance (63.4% after 24h at -5°C) when their SCP was lowest (-23.2°C). Conversely, from April to October 2021, the SCP reached its peak (approximately -13.0°C), while cold tolerance was at its lowest level (6.7% after 24h at -5°C). Cryoprotectant content (trehalose, glycerol, and glucose) was at its highest level in September (11.15, 10.82, and 6.31mg/g, respectively). The critical thermal minimum (CTmin) reached its lowest point of -2.2°C in January and February. The lowest point of the lower lethal temperature (LLT) coincided with the lowest level of the SCP and the highest level of cold tolerance (in February, LT50 = -5.3°C, SCP = -23.2°C, and survival = 77.78% at -4°C/24h). Chill-coma recovery time (CCRT) was examined at five different temperatures and two different exposure durations. The CCRT increased with a decrease in exposure temperature and time (68.0s at -2°C after 2h and 102.0s at -2°C after 4h). As the majority of the overwintering beetle's mortality occurred at temperatures significantly higher than SCP, the adults of H. variegata are chill-susceptible insects that primarily rely on a depressed supercooling point to cope with unfavorable conditions during the overwintering period.

Environmental complexity and predator density mediate a stable earwig-woolly apple aphid interaction

Regulation of insect pests by predators is an integral component of biological pest control. However, predator-prey interactions often reach a stable state leading to coexistence, which can be problematic for plant protection if the persisting herbivores exceed a damage threshold. Consequently, understanding the factors mediating this stability is crucial for successful biocontrol. Here, we investigated the predator-prey interaction of an important apple pest, the woolly apple aphid (WAA) (Eriosoma lanigerum Hausm.) (Hemiptera: Aphididae), and its predator, the omnivorous common earwig (Forficula auricularia L.) (Dermaptera: Forficulidae). To this end, we introduced increasing densities of earwigs in gauze-bagged branches harbouring defined amounts of WAA and recorded predation on individual WAA colonies for almost one month. We showed that the spatial complexity of the predation environment and the earwig density determined the predation efficiency on WAAs. Earwigs could eradicate WAAs regardless of density on short apple branches without lateral twigs (first trial). However, on longer, more complex branches (second trial), stable states of WAAs and earwigs were observed. Only the highest earwig density could completely consume WAA regardless of branch complexity. We introduce a conceptual model to describe the searching capability of earwigs, which determines their efficiency in locating prey. Our model predicts that searching capability is reduced by environmental complexity; this effect is alleviated by increased earwig density, as more predators possess a higher searching capability. Conclusively, our model explains why only the highest earwig density could completely consume WAA irrespective of complexity and illustrates how predator density and environmental complexity jointly influence predation. Thus environmental characteristics not inherent to our predator-prey interaction were a decisive factor for effective predation on gauze-bagged branches. Based on these results, reducing tree complexity by pruning or augmenting earwig populations in orchards can increase biocontrol of the WAA.

BIOLOGICAL EFFECTIVENESS OF THE APPLICATION OF NATURAL REFRIGERANTS IN PROTECTING POPLAR FROM PLANT PESTS

In poplar groves, worms, false worms, calf-head beetles, leaf-eaters, glassworms, shieldworms and other pests cause the main damage. From coccinellids, which have been effective predators of pests in poplar groves; chilocorus (Chilocorus renipustulatus Scrib) and two-pointed chilocorus (Chilocorus bipustulatus L.), seven-pointed khan girl (Sossinella septempunctata L.). In addition, it is important to reduce the number of pests in this agrocenosis.

Caracterización química y faunística de canales de drenaje del valle inferior del Río Colorado (Partido de Villarino y Patagones, provincia de Buenos Aires)

This is a contribution to the study o f the salty soil degradation, produced by outcrop of underground salt water, in the Lower Colorado River Valley. The process is made worse by the excesive growth of submerged aquatic weeds in the drainage System. The macroscopic aspect of the problem is shown in a nonquatizated flow diagram.
 On the basis of fortnightly water analysis, main chemical features of four principal channels are reported. For each month and channel Schoeller’s graphs are added and ionic variation through the year is pointed out.
 The meiofauna related to aquatic weeds was identified and some observations on alimentary habits were made. Bafon-benthos complex is a low diversity community with unispecific dominance of the gastropod Littorina parchappii (Hydrobiidae). Trophic relationships of this fauna are graphically displayed.
 The lack of an effective predation on weeds may be a factor of their exuberant development and the introduction of the macrophytophagous snail Ampollaría canaliculata Lamarck, 1801, as a potential biocontrol agent, is proposed.

The outlook for control of New Zealand’s most abundant, widespread and damaging invertebrate pests: social wasps

Invasive social wasps (Vespula germanica and V. vulgaris) are probably the most damaging, widespread invertebrate pests in New Zealand. In large areas of beech forests they can attain a biomass as great as, or greater than, the combined biomasses of birds, rodents and stoats. Wasps are effective and voracious predators and pose a significant risk to human health. Here, we highlight the scale and diversity of wasp impacts and the opportunities to develop cost effective landscape-scale tools for wasp control. Toxic baits can be extremely effective for wasp control, though the most effective pesticide (fipronil) is currently not commercially available for wasp control within New Zealand. Significant progress has been made to enhance lures for toxin delivery, including the use of synthetic lures. Biological control could offer the possibility of controlling wasps over huge areas at reasonable cost, though previous releases of biocontrol agents have not been successful. Avenues for further biological control work, such as the use of pathogens or parasitoids, are encouraged. We believe it is necessary and strategic to develop a suite of control tools. We urge government and the public to take action to control the wasp problem and to designate one agency as having the prime responsibility for doing this. Given that wasps are harming our natural heritage and inhibiting or adversely affecting people’s enjoyment of natural areas, we look to the natural resource sector to drive research and implement solutions. This includes Department of Conservation, Ministry of Primary Industry and Councils.