Effect Of Wax Research Articles

The Effect of Waxes on Rapeseed Oil Quality and Acrylamide Development in Potato Fries during Deep-Frying

This paper analyzed the effects of adding rice bran wax (RW) and beeswax (BW) to rapeseed oil as a deep-frying medium and the quality parameters of potato fries, including acrylamide contamination. It was found that the addition of RW and BW caused an increase in the oil’s acidity. However, oil deterioration based on peroxide values and fatty acid profiles did not differ very much from the oil without waxes. The study showed that the addition of rice bran wax at the level of 2.5 g/L of rapeseed oil was able to significantly decrease oil uptake in potato fries. The addition of waxes did not influence the color parameters in the first frying cycle; however, changes were observed later. The browning index indicated that 10 g of BW per liter may darken fries in comparison to rapeseed oil without additives. It was found that with an increase in wax content in the frying medium, potato fries contained more acrylamide.

Effect of wax on hydrate formation and aggregation characteristics of water-in-oil emulsion

In recent years, the formation and aggregation of wax and hydrate under the condition of coexistence has become a hot spot in the safety assurance of deep-water pipeline flow. In order to clarify the influence mechanism of wax and hydrate in deep-sea crude oil under coexistence conditions, the effects of different wax-containing conditions on the nucleation, growth and aggregation characteristics of hydrate in oil–water emulsion were studied by macroscopic and microscopic experimental equipment. The results show that low wax content (0–3.wt%) provides nucleation sites for hydrate formation and thus promotes hydrate formation. High wax content (>3.wt%) inhibits hydrate formation by preventing water droplets from contacting gas molecules. Low wax content (0–3.wt%) significantly reduces hydrate interparticle aggregation. High wax content (>3.wt%) promotes hydrate interparticle aggregation, which changes the flow characteristics of the hydrate slurry. In addition, through further analysis by PVM and high-speed camera, a wax-containing hydrate aggregation mechanism model was established.

Wax treatment delays the coloration of postharvest citrus fruit by retarding the carotenoid biosynthesis pathway

Wax coating is a widely used method to delay fruit maturation, especially for postharvest citrus fruit. Although treatment of citrus fruits with wax delays the color change process, the underlying mechanism is poorly understood. This study investigated the effect of SP-1 commercial wax on the peel coloration of postharvest Miyagawa Wase (Citrus unshiu Marc.) fruit. Results showed that wax treatment retarded the coloration of citrus fruit. Transcriptomic analysis revealed that multiple genes involved in cell wall, photosynthetic light reaction, lipid metabolism, primary metabolism and secondary metabolisms were differentially expressed after wax treatment. Specifically, genes involved in carotenoid biosynthesis including phytoene desaturase (PDS), ζ-carotene desaturase (ZDS), lycopene β-cyclase (LCYb), β-carotene hydroxylase (CHY), violaxanthin de-epoxidase (VDE), xanthoxin dehydrogenase (ABA2) and 9-cis-epoxycarotenoid dioxygenase (NCED) were all down-regulated after wax treatment. Correspondingly, the contents of total carotenoid, violaxanthin (two isomers, tran- and cis-), β, β-xanthophylls (β-cryptoxanthin and antheraxanthin), luteoxanthin, lutein and abscisic acid (ABA) in wax-treated peels were all decreased. Collectively, our results suggest that SP-1 commercial wax can delay citrus fruit coloration by retarding the carotenoid biosynthetic pathway thus providing basis for future studies on the possible effects of waxing on the coloration of a wide range of fruits.

Structures and Functions of Cuticular Wax in Postharvest Fruit and Its Regulation: A Comprehensive Review with Future Perspectives

Cuticular wax plays a major role in the growth and storage of plant fruits. The cuticular wax coating, which covers the outermost layer of a fruit’s epidermal cells, is insoluble in water. Cuticular wax is mainly composed of very long-chain fatty acids (VLCFAs); their derivatives, including esters, primary alcohols, secondary alcohols, aldehydes, and ketones; and triterpenoids. This complex mixture of lipids is probably biosynthesized in the epidermal cells of most plants and exuded onto the surface. Cuticular wax not only makes the fruit less susceptible to microbial infection but also reduces mechanical damage to the fruit, thereby maintaining the fruit’s commodity value. To date, research has mostly focused on the changes, function, and regulation of fruit wax before harvest, while ignoring the changes and functions of wax in fruit storage. This paper reviews on the composition, structure, and metabolic regulation of cuticular wax in fruits. It also focuses on postharvest factors affecting wax composition, such as storage temperature, relative humidity (RH), gas atmosphere, and as well as exogenous hormones, and the effects of wax on fruit postharvest quality, including water dispersion, fruit softening, physiological disorders, and disease resistance. These summaries may be of assistance in better understanding the changes in cuticular wax in postharvest fruit and the resulting effects on fruit quality.

Effect of Wax on Cohesive Behavior of Gas Hydrate under High Pressure

In the deep-sea crude oil pipeline, the formation of hydrates and the deposition of wax will cause pipeline blockage under adverse conditions. Moreover, the interaction of wax and hydrates will lead to a higher tendency of pipeline blockage, which will pose a huge threat to the transportation of crude oil on the sea floor. In order to clarify the effect of wax on cohesive behavior of gas hydrate, the gas hydrate particles were used as experimental particles to measure the adhesion force between particles in the wax-free system and the wax-containing system directly, and then, the effect of wax on the adhesion force between particles was compared and analyzed. The results showed that wax can destroy the shell structure of hydrate particles, resulting in easier formation of liquid bridges and significantly enhanced adhesion force. Therefore, the adhesion force in the wax-containing system would be significantly greater than that in the wax-free system. In addition, by comparing the adhesion force of different hydrate particles in contact with wax particles, it was found that under high pressure, the precipitation of wax may first cause the agglomeration of CH4 hydrate. Finally, by analyzing the adhesion force and particle morphology at different wax concentrations, the influence mechanism of wax on hydrate cohesion behavior was proposed. This study provides a theoretical basis for eliminating or reducing the blockage of deep-sea crude oil pipelines.

Fast Melt Cocoa Butter Tablet: Effect of Waxes, Starch, and PEG 6000 on Physical Properties of the Preparation.

A fast melt tablet (FMT) is well regarded as an alternative delivery system that might help resolve a patient’s non-compliance issue. The main objective of this study was to develop a cocoa butter-based FMT. Additives, namely 5–15% of PEG 6000, beeswax, paraffin wax, and corn starch, were incorporated into the cocoa butter-based FMT to study the effects of these additives with the physical characteristic of a cocoa butter FMT. An optimum-based formulation was chosen according to the desired hardness and disintegration time and the taste masking property achieved with the model drug—dapoxetine. The analysis demonstrated that incorporating beeswax (15%) and paraffin wax (15%) could prolong the disintegration time by at least two-fold. On the contrary, the presence of corn starch was found to cause an increase in the hardness and reduction of the disintegration time. The disintegration mechanism might be presumed due to the synergistic effect of starch swelling and cocoa butter melting. The hardness value and in vitro disintegration time of the optimum formulation were recorded at 2.93 ± 0.22 kg and 151.67 ± 6.98 s. In terms of dissolution, 80% of dapoxetine was released within 30 min and the dissolution profile was comparable to the innovator product. The formulation was palatable and stable for at least 1 year. The exposure of the FMT formulation at 30 °C for 12 months was reported to be stable. Along with the sound palatability profile and high drug load capacity, the current formulation possesses the desired characteristics to be scaled up and marketed.

Rheology investigation of propane gas hydrate crystallization in water/asphaltene-resin-wax deposit emulsions

Hydrates and asphaltene-resin-wax deposits are increasingly concerned as a terrible problem in the field of offshore oil and gas production and transportation. The rheological property of propane gas hydrate in the water-in-asphaltene-resin-wax deposit (W/ARWD) emulsion was in situ characterized by experiments in a stress-controlled rheometer with particular focus on the effects of pressure, emulsion component ratio, and deposit composition. Results demonstrated that the higher pressure could accelerate hydrate formation and aggregation in a shorter time, and exhibit more obvious shear-thinning behavior of hydrate slurry. The emulsion component ratio was positive correlation with the hydrate slurry viscosity and the yield stress, was negative correlation with the hydrate crystallization time. Asphaltene and wax occupied more nucleation sites on water droplets and formed physical barriers to hinder the hydrate crystallization. The promoting effect of resin on hydrate crystallization was stronger than inhibiting effect. With the increase of asphaltene, resin, and wax contents, the yield stress of hydrate slurry gradually increased, and the effect of wax on the yield stress was stronger than asphaltene and resin, which was associated with the multiple effects of capillary bridge between hydrate particles and spatial network of wax crystals. Furthermore, the coupling effect of pressure, emulsion component ratio, and deposit composition on the rheological properties of hydrate slurry had been studied. This study is significant in that it can helpfully support the development of subsea multiphase flow assurance in petroleum production.

Effects of waxes on hydrate behaviors in water-in-oil emulsions containing asphaltenes

In this study, the effects of waxes on carbon dioxide hydrate formation and dissociation in asphaltene-containing emulsions were systematically investigated using a high-pressure stirred autoclave equipped with an on-line viscometer. The results showed that the presence of waxes strengthened the inhibiting effect of asphaltenes on hydrate formation. Specifically, the induction time increased and the amount of formed hydrates decreased with increasing wax content in water-in-oil emulsion containing asphaltenes. The results indicated that waxes increased the viscosity of emulsions. It was observed that wax crystals dispersed in the bulk phase and got adsorbed at water–oil interface through the synergistic effect with asphaltenes. Furthermore, waxes inhibited the dissociation of hydrates in these emulsions. Both the gas emission rate and the average rate of hydrate dissociation decreased with an increase in wax content. The possible mechanisms were proposed to illustrate the effects of waxes on hydrate formation and dissociation in asphaltene-containing water-in-oil emulsions.

Effect of wax on hydrate formation in water-in-oil emulsions

Gas hydrates are non-stoichiometric crystalline compounds that can block pipelines, representing a significant threat to subsea flow assurance. In addition, wax precipitation is also a common issue in subsea pipelines. Since the multiphase flow is transported under low temperature and high-pressure conditions, formation of gas hydrates and wax precipitation may occur simultaneously, potentially posing greater challenges to subsea pipelines. The presence of wax complicates the hydrate formation issue. In this work, the influence of wax on hydrate formation was experimentally investigated in a high-pressure autoclave equipped with an online viscometer. Since natural surfactants are common in crude oil, Span 80 was used to simulate the presence of natural surfactants, and the effect of this compound on hydrate formation was considered. The presence of wax or Span 80 was observed to increase the difficulty of the hydrate formation at similar temperatures. The wax shell structure was found to grow at the water/oil interface based on the microscopic observation. Wax was also found to increase the hydrate induction time significantly. By associating the microscopic observation, a possible mechanism based on the mass transfer resistance was proposed to clarify the influence of wax on hydrate nucleation. Moreover, in the absence of Span 80, the amount of hydrate formed was observed to increase with the amount of wax in the emulsions.

Study and Evaluation of Changqing Crude Oil Antiwaxing Agent

In order to solve the problems of wax deposit, this study evaluated the effect of wax cleaning agent used in Changqing and adjusted its formulation. The results showed that the wax removal rate of oil based dewaxing agent was slightly higher than that of emulsion dewaxing agent for crude oil with low salt content. It is possible that the emulsion dewaxing agent contains a certain amount of mutual solvents, which improves its wetting ability at the oil-water interface and makes the oil and water dissolve each other. So that the wax deposit surface from hydrophilic hydrophobic to hydrophilic hydrophobic, forming anti-wax film to prevent wax deposition. Therefore, the wax removal ability of 1#, 3# oil wax is higher than that of oil base wax dewaxing agent.

Effect of waxing, cold storage and salicylic acid on the quality and vase life of Heliconia wagneriana

The species of Heliconia that are most commercialized in Mexico are H. stricta, H. bihai, H. caribea, H. psittacorum and H. wagneriana, among others. The bracts of Heliconias can be hanging and erect. The growing demand for these floral stems is attributed to their exotic beauty and longevity of the floral stem. Although the use of preservative solutions and storage at low temperature, improve vase life for most flowers of temperate climate, these do not have the same effectiveness in tropical flowers. For example, while temperate climate flowers are stored at temperatures above the freezing point, for Heliconia species, the recommended temperature for transport and storage is around 10°C, as they are sensitive to chilling injury. Therefore, in this work we evaluated the quality changes in H. wagneriana with the application of wax in the bracts and the use of salicylic acid (SA at 1 mM) in preservative solution at room temperature and under cold storage (10°C/10 days). The variables evaluated were: vase life, water absorption, membrane integrity, enzymatic activity and stomatal functionality. The results showed a low consumption of solution (less than 6% w/v). In Heliconias, there are no vascular connections between the floral peduncle and the leaves, which contributes to low water absorption after harvest. The transpiration evaluation had a non-typical circadian rhythm, which suggests that the stomata located in the bracts are not functional and do not respond to environmental factors. The control stems stored at room temperature had 9 d of vase life, while the waxed ones 12 d; the control stems stored under refrigeration had an additional 4.3 d of vase life and the waxed ones 6.2 d. The use of SA solution did not improve the quality of Heliconia stems. The activity of polyphenol oxidase and peroxidase was lower in the waxed stems as well as the chilling injury damage.

STUDY THE EFFECT OF HAIR STYLE PRODUCTS ON THE QUALITY OF DOMESTIC WASTEWATER- WAX AS CASE STUDY

People have used personal care products throughout history. Hair cosmetics are among the most common and widely used products. In this study, the effect of WAX and shampoo, which are hair cosmetics, on domestic wastewater pollution were investigated separately and together. The study consists of two stages. In the first stage, Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) and hydrogen concentration (pH) of WAX, shampoo and WAX + shampoo were analyzed. COD results were 1096 mg / L, 584 mg / L and 1896 mg / L, respectively. In the second stage, these products (0.1 g WAX and 0.1 g shampoo) were added separately and jointly to 2g of human raw hair. In this stage, wastewater was prepared by shaking sample of hair in 100 mL water for 30 minutes. The concentrations of COD were 1296 mg / L, 592 mg / L and 1328 mg / L, respectively. The PH increased from 7.3 to about 8 after adding cosmetics. The experiments showed that the added WAX to the hair is reduced by 40% by weight in 250C and 30 minutes. In order to quantify and realize the human habits of using such hair cosmetics during the day, a questionnaire was prepared and distributed to 385 of people. It was found that 43% of the people used WAX and 45% of them used this product every day. Accordingly, this study have been investigated only WAX and shampoo, keeping in mind that chemicals used for cosmetic purposes have been found enormous effects on domestic wastewater.

In Situ Viscosity Measurements of a Cyclopentane Hydrate Slurry in Waxy Water-in-Oil Emulsions

With the tendency of the offshore petroleum industry moving to the deep-water fields, there are several challenges for the exploration and development of oil and gas with higher paraffin content in the deep-water severe environment, especially the complex flow assurance issues including the coexistence of wax precipitation and hydrate formation. The effects of wax on hydrate slurry viscosity, hydrate nucleation and growth, and hydrate dissociation were investigated in a rheometer. Results indicated that the stage characteristics of viscosity evolution during hydrate formation in waxy and wax-free emulsions were different, and two stages could be observed during the hydrate growth process in the presence of wax. Hydrate slurry viscosity increased with the wax content. The coupled hydrate–wax aggregates were difficult to be broken by the constant shearing force. The shear-thinning property of the hydrate slurry was not affected by the precipitated wax. Hydrate formation was inhibited due to the wax precipit...

Investigation of Hydrate Agglomeration and Plugging Mechanism in Low-Wax-Content Water-in-Oil Emulsion Systems

Pipeline blockage caused by hydrates and wax in subsea pipelines is a major hazard for flow assurance in the petroleum industry. When hydrates and wax coexist in a flow system, the plugging risk is more severe. The effects of wax on hydrate formation, agglomeration process, flow properties, and plugging mechanisms were studied in a high-pressure flow loop using water-in-oil (w/o) emulsion systems. The flow properties of the system with the presence of wax were entirely different from those of the system without wax under the same experimental conditions. Three types of plugging were observed in the flow loop: rapid plugging, transition plugging, and gradual plugging. The interaction relationships between wax crystals, water droplets, and hydrate particles and the formation of wax–hydrate aggregates were proposed based on the particle video measurement (PVM) probe observation and the analysis of the fluid viscosity. The mechanisms of different plugging scenarios were presented, which were highly correlated...

Effect of wax and dimethyl silicone oil pretreatment on wood hygroscopicity, chemical components, and dimensional stability

Wood is a renewable and environmental friendly material, but its low dimensional stability characteristics limit its applications. In this study, wax mixed with dimethyl silicone oil was used to enhance the dimensional stability under heat treatment. Samples were heated at 120 °C under 3 impregnation conditions (wax, wax + 20% dimethyl silicone oil, and wax + 40% dimethyl silicone oil) for 3 and 6 h respectively. After treatment the effects of combination pretreatment on wood weight gain percentage (WPG), tangential, radial and volume swelling coefficients (TS, RS, VS), distribution of impregnation liquid, and the types of functional groups of African Padauk (Pterocarpus soyauxii) were evaluated. The results showed that impregnation improved the dimensional stability of wood to a certain extent; moreover, the addition of dimethyl silicone oil improved the modification effect. Furthermore, the VS reduced to 0.66 (±0.28)% in the treatment of wax + 20% dimethyl silicone oil for 6 h. The impregnation liquid mainly adhered to the walls of vessels and ray cells. The hydroxyl absorption intensity of the impregnated groups was lower than that of the control group.

Effect of applying cinnamaldehyde incorporated in wax on green mould decay in citrus fruits.

Green mould caused by Penicillium digitatum is the most damaging postharvest diseases of citrus fruit. Cinnamaldehyde (CA) is a food additive that has potential use in controlling postharvest disease of fruits and vegetables. In this study, the effectiveness of wax with CA (WCA) in controlling Ponkan (Citrus reticulata Blanco) green mould was investigated. The mycelial growth of P. digitatum was inhibited by CA in a dose-dependent manner. The minimum inhibitory concentration and minimum fungicidal concentration (MFC) were both 0.50 mL L-1 . In vivo tests demonstrated that WCA (1 × and 10 × MFC) applied to Ponkan fruits inoculated with P. digitatum could significantly decrease the incidence of green mould for up to 5 days. The WCA treatment increased the activities of catalase, superoxide dismutase, peroxidase, phenylalanine ammonia lyase, polyphenol oxidase, as well as the total phenols and flavonoids contents. Meanwhile, the treatment remarkably decreased the weight loss rate of fruits and maintained fruit quality. These results indicated that WCA treatment might induce defence responses against green mould in citrus fruit. Our findings suggest that WCA might be a promising approach in controlling green mould of citrus fruits. © 2017 Society of Chemical Industry.

Structural and chemical analysis of bitumen using time-of-flight secondary ion mass spectrometry (TOF-SIMS)

The chemical composition and structures of bitumen surfaces are characterised using time-of-flight secondary ion mass spectrometry (TOF-SIMS). The effect of wax is considered by comparing a wax-free bitumen with a bitumen that contains natural wax and a wax-free bitumen to which a small amount of wax has been added. The results demonstrate that TOF-SIMS is a powerful method for the chemical characterisation of surface structures and phase segregation phenomena in bitumen. It is evident that the structures formed on the bitumen surface are closely related to the wax content and that these structures, as well as the surface in general, are enriched in wax-related compounds (aliphatic hydrocarbons with a high degree of saturation). For the wax-free bitumen, the surface is characterised by a homogeneous distribution without chemical variations or phase structures and by a stronger signal intensity from aromatic compounds. When adding wax to the wax-free bitumen, extensive wax segregation occurs, but differently from the natural waxy bitumen, no bee structures are observed. Furthermore, fracture surfaces of all the wax-containing samples reveal circular structures, which are distinctly different from those observed on the original surfaces. The obtained chemical knowledge on bitumen surfaces and phase structures is of fundamental importance to understand performance differences of this type of materials.

加硫ゴム表面にブリード・固着化させたワックスのオゾン遮断効果

Effect of wax on ozone degradation of vulcanized rubber was investigated at temperatures between -30 °C and 40 °C. The vulcanized rubber was prepared by mixing synthetic isoprene rubber with CB, sulfur, ZnO, stearic acid, accelerator and wax, followed by heating at 160 °C for 8 min. It was further heated at 23 °C, 40 °C and melting temperature of each wax for 72 hours under 20% stretching, in order to segregate the wax onto the surface of the vulcanized rubber as a bleeding. Ozone exposure tests of the vulcanized rubber were carried out at the temperatures between -30 °C and 40 °C in the presence of 50 pphm ozone for 24 and 168 hours, respectively. Crack propagation of the ozone-degraded rubber was observed with a digital microscope. The wax, bleeding onto the surface of the vulcanized rubber, was found to improve the ozone resistance of the rubber as compared with an ordinary bloomed wax.

Formulation Development and Evaluation of Sustained Release Matrix Tablets of Guaiphenesin

In this study we sought to formulate and evaluate sustained release matrix tablet of guaiphenesin by melt granulation technology. The sustained release tablets were prepared by melt granulation technique using rice bran wax as a drug retardant and dibasic calcium phosphate (DCP) as a channelling agent. Guaiphenesin is an expectorant and has a short plasma half-life of one hour. Because of high frequency of administration and short biological half-life, guaiphenesin was considered as model drug. Sustained release formulation that would maintain plasma levels for 12 hours is sufficient for twice daily dosing of guaiphenesin. The compatibility of drug and wax was examined by differential scanning calorimetry (DSC). The effect of waxes at different (drug: wax) concentrations on the release profile of drug from matrix formulation were studied. Drug release was studied at pH 1.2 for 2 hour and pH 6.8 for 10 hours. A significant retardation in the drug release was observed by increasing the wax concentration. The drug release study revealed that wax concentration of 30% to be optimum. Dissolution study showed 99% drug release within 12 hrs. Kinetic modelling of in vitro dissolution profiles revealed the drug release mechanism ranges from diffusion controlled or Fickian transport to anomalous type or non-Fickian transport. These results suggest that the rice bran wax has good release retardant property for highly water-soluble drug such as guaiphenesin.

老化防止剤ワックスが低温下における加硫ゴムのオゾン劣化に与える影響

老化防止剤ワックスが低温下における加硫ゴムのオゾン劣化に与える影響