Effects Of Social Conditions Research Articles

Health resilience and the global pandemic: The effect of social conditions on the COVID‐19 mortality rate

AbstractCan ‘health resilience’ explain international differences in COVID‐19 mortality? This paper aims to understand the significant diversity in mortality rates between countries in terms of their degree of preparedness for the crisis and the underlying health conditions of the population. We integrate COVID‐19 data from the first year of the pandemic with panel data from 2009 to 2017 for 188 countries around the world in order to investigate international variation in COVID‐19 mortality rates. Country‐level data on health, medical, social and policy variables are compared with COVID‐19 mortality rates, with further controls imposed to adjust for infection rate, population and health spending. The results show that prior health conditions, social deprivation and the demography of the country all have significant effects on the mortality rates associated with the virus. The evidence also suggests that countries with higher levels of health‐related policy targets demonstrated lower levels of mortality during the crisis. Finally, we confirm that social habits such as smoking, alcohol consumption and over‐eating create a highly vulnerable group of individuals who were exposed to a greater risk of mortality during the outbreak.

Maternity Health Workers’ Views on the Effect of Social Conditions on The Maternal Mortality Rate in Hyderabad District, Pakistan

The objective of the study was to find out the leading social factors causing maternal mortality in Hyderabad district A total of 125 maternity health workers including qualified gynecologists /obstetricians and undergraduate trained obstetricians from Hyderabad district (Sindh, Pakistan) were interviewed on the effect of social conditions on the maternal mortality rate with a predesigned close ended questionnaire. The period of study was four months from November 2016 to February 2017. It has been found that majority of the respondents revealed that a good number of complicated maternity cases are refused for admission due to unavailability of required facilities to treat such patients. This is considered one of the major reasons for maternal mortality death. Unavailability of required transport on an urgent basis is considered yet another cause. Leading causes of maternal mortality were poverty 41.6%), negligence of family men (27.2%), illiteracy (12%), malnutrition (11.2%) and non-availability of medical facilities (8%) at the center of primary care. It is a fact that socio cultural factor does influence the maternal mortality. Our findings resonate with the findings elsewhere. This necessitates to take corrective measures to improve the healthcare conditions of pregnant mother.

Perlindungan Hukum Terhadap Anak Korban Eksploitasi Seksual Berdasarkan Hukum Islam

A good nation's children are a reflection of good quality, so they need to be protected to get the authority to grow, develop, and obtain a prosperous life. But at this time the protection and welfare of children is still lacking, one of which is the issue of sexual exploitation of children so that it becomes a category of crimes against humanity that must be avoided and destroyed. The purpose of this study is to discuss the legal arrangements for child exploitation contained in Islamic law and criminal sanctions against perpetrators of child exploitation according to Islamic law. The method used is a normative legal method with a statutory and conceptual approach to problems. The results of the discussion state that exploitation is a form of effort carried out to carry out a deepening of the capacity contained in an object, whether it is in the form of natural resources or otherwise, in terms of the relevance of a group/many of people, the factors that cause exploitation of children, namely poverty, effects of social conditions, motivation workers to families. Criminal sanctions for exploitation of children are in Law number 35 of 2014 Article 14 paragraph (1), Article 81 paragraph (1) and Article 82.

Effect of social condition on behavioral development during early adult phase in Drosophila prolongata

Behavioral changes during early development provide useful insights into the internal mechanisms that generate complex behavior expressed by mature individuals. At the same time, social conditions during early adult phase can influence behavior in later stages of development even in holometabolous insects. In this study, age-dependent changes in courtship behavior and the effect of social conditions were examined in a fruit fly, Drosophila prolongata. Younger males showed lower mating activity and simpler courtship behavior. Mating activity reached a maximum level by 5 days after eclosion, whereas expression of complex courtship behavior was not yet fully developed at that time, suggesting that they are controlled by different mechanisms. When two males were maintained in the same vial, not only mating activity but also courtship complexity was reduced, demonstrating for the first time that preceding social experience, not current social conditions, influenced the complexity of male courtship. The effect of social experience was completely erased by 1 day of isolation, however, showing that social experience did not suppress or promote behavioral development itself. Rather, these results suggest that the observed effect of social experience was a plastic response of males that reduced investment in courtship effort by anticipating increased male–male competition.

Plasticity of morphological traits in response to social conditions in a simultaneous hermaphrodite

According to sex allocation theory, hermaphrodites allocate a fixed amount of resources to their male and female functions, and the proportion of resources invested in each sex depends on the mating group size. Measures of trade-offs between male and female functions are usually made directly by estimating the number of gametes or the size of the gonads. In this study, we focused on the effect of social conditions (i.e. mating opportunities) on the expression of some morphological traits and on their plasticity in the protandrous simultaneously hermaphrodite Ophryotrocha diadema. We investigated whether in O. diadema the morphological traits, which are dimorphic in Ophryotrocha dioecious species – upper-jaw size, prostomium size, body size and number of rosette glands − are plastic when they respond to variations in social conditions and whether variations in these traits are associated with variations in male and/or female reproductive success. Plasticity of the traits was analysed during both the juvenile and the adult phases in order to check whether phenotypic plasticity is limited to the developmental phase or can be manifested throughout the whole lifespan of the animals. Our results showed that the number of rosette glands, the upper-jaw size and the prostomium size are traits that are plastic in O. diadema. Indeed, the number and size of these traits changed according to the variation of social conditions. However, we found no association between the plastic morphological traits and male or female reproductive success.

Effects of social conditions during adolescence on courtship and aggressive behavior are not abolished by adult social experience.

Social experience during adolescence has long-lasting consequences for adult social behavior in many species. In zebra finches, individuals reared in pairs during adolescence start to court females faster, sing more courtship motifs to females and are more aggressive compared with group-reared males. We investigated whether such differences are stable during adulthood or can be abolished by novel social experience after adolescence by giving all birds extensive experience with group life during adulthood. Courtship and aggressiveness increased in all males, but pair-reared males still had a higher motif rate and were more aggressive than group-reared males. Males no longer differed in courtship latency. In addition to the stable treatment differences, individual differences in behavior remained stable over time. Our results show that differences in behavior acquired during adolescence are preserved into adulthood, although adults still change their social behavior. Adolescence can thus be seen as a sensitive period during which social conditions have a lasting effect on adult behavior.

Socioeconomic Effects on the Stature of Nineteenth-Century US Women

Using a new source of nineteenth-century state prison records and robust statistics, this study contrasts the effects of social conditions on the stature of comparable African American and white women during the economic development of the United States. Across the stature distribution, Great Lakes, Plains, and Southern women were taller than women with other US and international nativities. Women from the Northeast and Middle Atlantic were the shortest within the US, but were taller than British and European immigrants. White women were consistently taller than black women. Stature also varied over time with industrialization and emancipation. Across the stature distribution, women in outdoor, unskilled occupations were taller than women in indoor, skilled occupations. These results show that US women's average statures reflect net nutritional conditions that are not available in traditional measures of economic well-being.

The Presence of a Familiar Peer Does Not Affect Intensity or Enjoyment during Treadmill Exercise in Male Distance Runners or Non-Runners

The Presence of a Familiar Peer Does Not Affect Intensity or Enjoyment during Treadmill Exercise in Male Distance Runners or Non-Runners The purpose of this study was to experimentally test the effect of the exercising with a partner (versus alone) on the intensity, enjoyment, and ratings of perceived exertion (RPE) of self-paced treadmill exercise in competitive male runners and non-runner controls. Collegiate male distance runners (N=14, 20.2 ± 1.4 yr) and non-runner controls (N=10, 22.6 ± 2.01 yr) completed two exercise trials under differing social conditions (alone, with a peer) in a counterbalanced order. Exercise trials each consisted of 30-minutes of self-paced treadmill exercise with grade fixed at 0% and speed controlled voluntarily by the participant. During one visit participants exercised on a treadmill alone (alone condition). During the other visit participants exercised with a familiar peer on an identical treadmill adjacent to their own (peer condition). Total distance covered (km), average treadmill speed (km∙hr-1), enjoyment of the exercise (mm), heart rate (beats∙min-1), and rating of perceived exertion (RPE) were assessed in each condition. Mixed-model regression analysis showed no significant (p ≥ 0.40) main effect of social condition in either group for any of the dependent variables. These results suggest that the presence of a familiar peer does not alter exercise behavior or enjoyment during treadmill exercise.

Social Context and Video Game Play: Impact on Cardiovascular and Affective Responses

We examined if cardiovascular and affective responding to video game play changed across social context or with game content. Male participants (13–22 years old) played a violent or nonviolent video game. Each participant played the game individually, competitively against a male partner, and cooperatively with the partner. There was no effect of social condition on heart rate (HR) or diastolic blood pressure (DBP). Participants had significantly higher systolic BP (SBP) when playing individually and competitively than when playing cooperatively, probably because play was more continuous. There was no impact of game type for HR or SBP. DBP was significantly higher for participants who played the violent game, perhaps because participants found the violent game more exciting and enjoyable. Participants who played the violent game rated the experimenters more positively than those who played the nonviolent game. Participants found game play more exciting, enjoyable, stressful, and frustrating, but less boring and relaxing, when they played competitively or cooperatively than when they played individually. The results are discussed in terms of the general aggression model.

Effects of social conditions during early development on stress response and personality traits in great tits (Parus major)

Environmental conditions during early development play a crucial role in shaping an organism's phenotype. To test how social group size affects stress response and behavioral characteristics, we used great tits (Parus major) from selection lines for exploratory behavior, a proxy for an avian personality trait, and birds from the wild in a brood size manipulation experiment. Nestlings were tested for stress response using an established stress test and after independence subjects were tested for exploratory behavior. Nestlings from small broods showed a stronger stress response than nestlings from normal-sized broods. Exploratory behavior was not affected by brood size but associated with sex ratio in the nest. Birds from female-biased broods became faster explorers than those from male-biased broods. The results demonstrate that early social conditions can affect physiological stress responses in nestlings and that behavioral personality traits measured after fledging can be affected by the social experience in the nest.

More than numbers matter: The effect of social factors on behaviour and welfare of laboratory rodents and non-human primates

With the development of laboratory animal science, increasing attention has been given to the possible influence of housing and husbandry on the behaviour and welfare of laboratory animals as well as on the scientific integrity. With the present paper, we aim to contribute to this knowledge by reviewing existing literature on how social factors influence laboratory rodents and non-human primates. We use social ecology in the wild as a starting point to understand experimental studies of these social species. Laboratory studies show that preweaning social experiences, and lack thereof, affect the development of social skills and capacity to cope with stressful situations in both primates and rodents. Studies of deprivation, of preference and of demand indicate that both rodents and primates are highly motivated to interact with conspecifics. When housed alone, rodents and primates typically show a more ‘anxious’ reaction in behaviour tests, and are more profoundly affected by certain stressors, although there seem to be some differences in how rodent males and females react to different social situations. However, for social housing to be beneficial for the animals, compatible and stable groups are crucial. When forming groups of monkeys in captivity, the age and sex of individuals and their relative age difference, the taxonomic membership of the animals as well as the introductory technique are factors of importance for success. Kinship is also of importance for the compatibility of both rodent and primate groups. Social instability through changes of group composition is apparently stressful, resulting in behavioural and physiological alterations in both rodents and primates. The effects of social conditions around testing have been given much less attention, but several studies show that animals react differently in behaviour tests when tested in group than when tested individually. Altogether, the most commonly used laboratory rodents and primates belong to social species, and their behaviour and welfare are strongly affected by previous and present social environment. Factors such as group composition and stability, rank and previous social experience therefore need to be taken into account both when designing housing systems and when planning experiments and interpreting results.

Effects of social conditions on adult and subadult female rat-like hamsters (Cricetulus triton)

As a solitary species, rat-like hamsters (Cricetulus triton) still live in family groups before they become mature and leave their families for a solitary life. This study aimed to investigate by a laboratory experiment if housing conditions have a different effect on physiological aspects of immature and mature females. We found that paired caged adult females became significantly heavier than their original weights; whereas the singly caged did not show significant change in their body weight. Although the subadults’ body weights increased significantly compared to their initial weights in both paired or singly caged groups, significant changes in body weight did not occur between the two groups. Although spleen and adrenal gland sizes were not significantly different between the two adult groups, the cortisol levels were significantly elevated by paired caging. In subadults, the adrenal size of the singly caged group was larger than that in the paired caged group despite there being no significant difference in cortisol level. Flank glands became significantly larger in paired caged adults than in singly caged adults, and there were no significant differences in subadults between the two groups. Additionally, ovaries and uteri of the paired caged adult females were comparatively lighter than those of the singly caged group; in contrast, ovaries and uteri of the paired caged group were larger than those of the singly caged group in subadults, although progesterone and estradiol levels did not show significant differences between the two adult groups. These different changes in physiological traits caused by housing conditions indicated that paired caging depressed adults and facilitated subadults; isolation facilitated adults and depressed subadults.

Immunocompetence of nestling great tits in relation to rearing environment and parentage

Theoretical models of host–parasite coevolution assume a partially genetic basis to the variability in susceptibility to parasites among hosts, for instance as a result of genetic variation in immune function. However, few empirical data exist for free–living vertebrate hosts to support this presumption. In a cross–fostering experiment with nestling great tits, by comparing nestlings of the same origin we investigated (i) the variance in host resistance against an ectoparasite due to a common genetic origin, (ii) the effect of ectoparasite infestation on cell–mediated immunity and (iii) the variance in cell–mediated immunity due to a common genetic origin. Ectoparasitic hen fleas can impair the growth of nestling great tits and nestling growth was therefore taken as a measure of host susceptibility. A common origin did not account for a significant part of the variation in host susceptibility to fleas. There was no significant overall effect of fleas on nestling growth or cell–mediated immunity, as assessed by a cutaneous hypersensitivity response. A common rearing environment explained a significant part of the variation in cell–mediated immunity among nestlings, mainly through its effect on nestling body mass. The variation in cell–mediated immunity was also related to a common origin. However, the origin–related variation in body mass did not account for the origin–related differences in cell–mediated immunity. The results of the present study thus suggest heritable variation in cell–mediated immunity among nestling great tits.

Effects of social conditions on Juvenile Hormone mediated reproductive development in Bombus terrestris workers

Abstract. During the annual life cycle of the bumble bee Bombus terrestris (L.) colony, there is a stage characterized by worker reproduction in the presence of the queen. It has been proposed that this is a result of a decrease in queen inhibition. This hypothesis was examined by studying the effects of queens taken from colonies at different stages of development on several aspects of worker physiology and behaviour: rates of Juvenile Hormone (JH) release in vitro, ovary development, and behaviour associated with reproduction. After optimizing and validating the radiochemical assay for JH release for bumble bee workers, we found that queenless workers had significantly more developed ovaries and higher rates of release of JH than did queenright workers, confirming and extending previous findings that suggest that bumblebee ovarian development is under JH control. Mated queens, separated from their colony and brood, can have the same inhibitory effect on the reproductive development of callow workers. In contrast, workers confined with virgin queens or in queenless groups demonstrated a significantly higher rate of release of JH, overt aggression and threatening behaviours. However, there were no differences in rates of release of JH between workers confined in groups in the laboratory with queens taken from colonies either before or after the onset of worker reproduction. Furthermore, overt aggression and threatening behaviours were similar and low in both types of groups. These results gave no support to the hypothesis that a decrease in queen inhibition is associated with the onset of worker reproduction. We also show that young workers reared in colonies either before or after worker reproduction occurs, or in queenless colonies, all demonstrated similar, low rates of release of JH. These results suggest that older workers may inhibit the corpora allata of younger workers in queenless colonies.

Genetic and environmental influences on growth.

To provide an overview of the factors associated with growth in primary school children in England and Scotland and to provide information about the secular trend of growth in the last 20 years. Representative English and Scottish samples and an English inner city sample. The study had a mixed longitudinal design from 1972 to 1994. Between 8000 and 10,000 children participated in each survey. Height was measured in at least 95% of the children in most surveys, and 75% to 85% of parents provided information about family background. Main results are based on published information. Multiple regression was used for most of the analyses. Parents' height, child's birth weight, mother's age at child's delivery, ethnic background and, in white children, family size are the only factors markedly associated with height. Variables that have traditionally been used to assess the possible effect of social conditions were generally not associated with height. The height increase was more marked in Scotland than England over the period 1972 to 1990, and the differences in height of children in the two countries is now minimal. Most factors cannot be neatly classified as purely genetic or environmental, but seem to indicate that genes are relatively more important. Social factors usually assessed in growth studies do not have an important effect on growth. The marked increase of height over time indicates that the environment and social conditions have allowed children to grow taller. Sibship size is the only factor that was shown to be related to the secular trend in growth.

Policy analysis in historical perspective

Policy analysis derives from a long tradition of assessing the activities of government. The most sophisticated analyses are distinguished by their concern to identify linkages between variables that represent causes and effects of social conditions, or the impacts to be expected from policy details. Inherent in their sophistication are methodological choices which invite dispute. Because of the controversies they generate, such analyses may contribute more to the knowledge about policy making than to the support of policy options.

Effect of social conditions during rearing on mating behaviour of gilts

The mating behaviour of 28 gilts was studied. The gilts were reared under two different social conditions known to affect both their puberty attainment and reproductive parameters during early pregnancy. The different social conditions were applied from an average age of 137 days onwards. Ten gilts were housed individually, having neither tactile nor visual contact with other pigs. The remaining gilts ( n=18) were housed pairwise, having additional contact with gilts in adjacent pens and daily boar contact from 180 days of age onwards. At third oestrus, the gilts were artificially inseminated and subsequently introduced to one of three vasectomized boars for a period of 20 min. The gilts were slaughtered 10±1 days after insemination. The mating behaviour varied considerably between individual gilts, partly because of differences in mating behaviour between the two groups of gilts. More ( P<0.05) individually housed gilts showed a standing response latency upon introduction of the boar. During this latency period, the individually housed gilts initiated contact with the boar. Once the standing response was elicited, mating behaviour was similar in gilts of both social groups. One individually housed gilt did not show a standing response and consequently was not mated. The mating behaviour of the boars did not differ for the gilts of the two social conditions. It was concluded that the social conditions of gilts during rearing affected their introductory sexual behaviour. The relationship with reproductive performance during early pregnancy is discussed.

Effects of social condition and estrous cycle on time-budgeting practices of female hamsters

The behavior of six adult female Syrian golden hamsters (Mesocricetus auratus) was observed across the estrous cycle and under three different social conditions: female alone, castrated male present, and intact male present. When alone, females spent most of their time in bodily maintenance activities such as grooming, eating, and sleeping. Behavior did not vary across the estrous cycle and was remarkably similar to that shown by males housed under similar conditions. In the presence of either castrated or intact males, females spent more time engaged in exploration and less time in locomotor and restless movements than when alone. Sexual behavior and food hoarding were influenced by both social condition and stage of the estrous cycle. We conclude that some behavior patterns of females are influenced by social environment alone, and others are influenced by both social conditions and reproductive conditions.

Effects of Social Conditions on the Expression of Sex-role Stereotypes

In this study, 129 female and 83 male undergraduates were asked to make judgments about identical male and female law school applicants. Evaluations of the candidate employed two types of measures: (a) direct measures set up to assess judgments based upon objective criteria such as GPA and aptitude test scores, and (b) indirect measures designed to provide more opportunity for subjective factors and subtle ways for stereotyping to operate. It was hypothesized that increased social awareness of sex discrimination would reduce more blatant types of stereotyping expressed in the direct measures and force stereotyping into more subtle forms, measurable through the construction of the indirect indices. The results revealed no differences between male and female candidates on the direct measures. However, stereotyping appeared on indirect measures associated with personality characteristics and employment alternatives. The investigators concluded that prejudicial attitudes toward women continue to exist and are expressed in more subtle or “hidden” forms. Suggestions for developing means for measuring these attitudes as well as practical considerations for reducing discrimination in employment settings were presented.

Effects of social conditions and time of testing on activity and striking of goldfish (Carassius auratus)

Pairs of goldfish were separated by a clear Plexiglas sheet, an opaque sheet, or mirrors with the reflective surfaces toward the fish. Horizontal activity, vertical activity, and striking for food pellets were recorded at 7:00 a.m., 12:00 noon, and 4:00 p.m. for 14 days. Horizontal and vertical activity was greater at 12:00 and 4:00 than at 7:00, increased for approximately the first 8 days, and then declined slightly. By the 10th day, horizontal activity was greater for fish with mirror-image stimulation and those separated by a clear Plexiglas sheet than fish separated by an opaque sheet. Striking for food pellets was not altered by social conditions or time of testing. The results suggest that social facilitation of feeding is not related to increased activity, but probably requires competition for food.