Effect Of Salts Research Articles

Effects of Electrolyte Salts on the Electrochemical Performance of Aromatic Polyaroxydiazole Anodes for Pseudocapacitors

Effects of Electrolyte Salts on the Electrochemical Performance of Aromatic Polyaroxydiazole Anodes for Pseudocapacitors

Metal-Exchanged Phosphomolybdic Acid Salts-Catalyzed Esterification of Levulinic Acid

We examined the effectiveness of metal-exchanged phosphomolybdic acid salts in converting levulinic acid, derived from biomass, into valuable products (alkyl levulinate). We prepared salts of phosphomolybdic acid using different metals (Fe3+, Al3+, Zn2+, Cu2+, Mn2+, Ni2+, and Co2+). The influence of metal cations on the conversion and selectivity of the reactions was assessed. We found that the salts prepared with iron and aluminum phosphomolybdate were the most effective catalysts for the esterification of levulinic acid with methanol, with the conversion and selectivity tending towards 100% after 6 h of reaction at a temperature of 323 K. The effect of catalyst loading and its recovery and reuse was evaluated; the results from the reaction using aluminum phosphomolybdate remained similar for four cycles of use. The influence of temperature on conversion and selectivity was investigated between 298 and 353 K. The reactivity of different alcohols with a carbon chain size of C1-C4 was assessed and conversions above 65% were obtained for all alcohols tested under the conditions evaluated, except for tert-butyl alcohol. These catalysts are a promising alternative to the traditional soluble and corrosive Brønsted acid catalysts. The superior performance of these catalysts was ascribed to the higher pH decline triggered by the hydrolysis of these metal cations.

Skinny fat model of metabolic syndrome induced by a high-salt/sucrose diet in young male rats.

Childhood and puberty can affect metabolism, leading to tissue injury and malfunction later in life. The consumption of high-processed foods rich in salt and sugar is increasing in middle- and high-income countries, especially among young people. It is necessary to evaluate the effects of high salt and sugar levels in the youth on most injured organs during metabolic challenges. We aimed to investigate whether high salt/sucrose intake affects whole-body development and leads to end-organ injury. Weaned Male Wistar rats were divided into two groups: a control group fed a standard diet (CO) and tap water, and an experimental group (SS) fed a standard diet and a beverage containing 1.8% NaCl and 20% sucrose instead of tap water. The animals were treated for 60 days, starting after weaning at 21 days of age, after which the animals were subjected to glucose and insulin tolerance tests, urine collection, and heart rate monitoring, and euthanized for sample collection at 81 days of age. SS showed reduced body weight gain and increased food intake of sodium/sucrose solution. Interestingly, high salt/sucrose intake led to increased body adiposity, liver lipid inclusion, heart rate, and renal dysfunction. SS exhibits increased levels of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor alpha to counterbalance the hypertrophy of brown adipose tissue. Our findings reveal that the SS rat model exhibits non-obvious obesity with end-organ damage and preserved brown adipose tissue function. This model closely parallels human conditions with normal BMI but elevated visceral adiposity, providing a relevant tool for studying atypical metabolic disorders.

Chemical structure analysis of chitosan-modified road bitumen after de-icing salt treatment

AbstractAsphalt pavements are constantly exposed to many destructive environmental factors including de-icing salts. The problem of the negative effect of salt ions on the performance and consequently the durability of road pavements occurs mainly in temperate climates and regions directly neighboring saline water areas. The salt ions react chemically with the bitumen components, which consequently changes their electronic structure and results in a weakening of the intermolecular interactions occurring between them. Therefore, this study focused primarily on an investigation into the potential for inhibiting the destructive erosion process of bitumen by its modification with chitosan. Studies involving changes in the acidity of the eroding solution as well as chemical and surface properties of the eroded bitumen were carried out for three different salts (NaCl, MgCl2, CaCl2) at varying concentrations, i.e. 5%, 10%, 15% (w/w) after 7 and 28 days of erosion process. Main findings demonstrate that chitosan prevents negative changes in the bitumen physico-chemical properties occurring during the salt erosion process. This effect is especially visible for the bitumen eroded with a solution of MgCl2 and CaCl2. For these salts, chitosan biopolymer reduces the introduction of Cl− ions into the bitumen-building hydrocarbon structures and formation of C–Cl bonds, which is demonstrated by a reduction in the pH changes of the eroding solutions. In addition, chitosan biopolymer inhibits leaching of organic matter from the bitumen, prevents C = O groups formation and reduces the negative effects of de-icing salts on the cohesion energy of the bitumen.

Cloud point extraction of heavy metal ions for wastewater remediation: an equilibrium and kinetic study

Abstract Surfactants offer a promising alternative for the efficient and environmentally friendly removal of organic pollutants and toxic heavy metal ions from various media. Their high efficiency and environmental compatibility make them a valuable option for remediation efforts. This study focuses on the cloud point extraction (CPE) of ions from aqueous solutions using biodegradable nonionic surfactants combined with ionic surfactants instead of chelating agents. Phase diagrams of binary surfactant/water systems were first constructed. The effects of salt, inorganic contaminants, and ionic surfactants on the cloud point (Tc) were then investigated. At temperatures above the cloud point, two distinct phenomena were observed and monitored over time: phase separation and phase clarification. The kinetic process was studied using the Turbiscan Lab Expert. Extraction results were evaluated based on four responses: extraction yield (E%), residual concentrations of solute (Xs,w) and surfactant (Xt,w) in the dilute phase, and volume fraction of coacervate at equilibrium (Φ C). Empirical modelling gives a satisfactory agreement between experimental and calculated values. The capacity of CPE to simultaneously remove an organic pollutant and a toxic heavy metal was demonstrated.

Direct and indirect salt effects on homotypic phase separation

The low-complexity domain of hnRNPA1 (A1-LCD) phase separates in a salt-dependent manner. Unlike many intrinsically disordered proteins (IDPs) whose phase separation is suppressed by increasing salt concentrations, the phase separation of A1-LCD is promoted by >100 mM NaCl. To investigate the atypical salt effect on A1-LCD phase separation, we carried out all-atom molecular dynamics simulations of systems comprising multiple A1-LCD chains at NaCl concentrations from 50 to 1000 mM NaCl. The ions occupy first shell as well as more distant sites around the IDP chains, with Arg sidechains and backbone carbonyls the favored partners of Cl– and Na+, respectively. They play two direct roles in driving A1-LCD condensation. The first is to neutralize the high net charge of the protein (+9) by an excess of bound Cl– over Na+; the second is to bridge between A1-LCD chains, thereby fortifying the intermolecular interaction networks in the dense phase. At high concentrations, NaCl also indirectly strengthens π–π, cation–π, and amino–π interactions, by drawing water away from the interaction partners. Therefore, at low salt, A1-LCD is prevented from phase separation by net charge repulsion; at intermediate concentrations, NaCl neutralizes enough of the net charge while also bridging IDP chains to drive phase separation. This drive becomes even stronger at high salt due to strengthened π-type interactions. Based on this understanding, four classes of salt dependence of IDP phase separation can be predicted from amino-acid composition.

Direct and indirect salt effects on homotypic phase separation.

The low-complexity domain of hnRNPA1 (A1-LCD) phase separates in a salt-dependent manner. Unlike many intrinsically disordered proteins (IDPs) whose phase separation is suppressed by increasing salt concentrations, the phase separation of A1-LCD is promoted by >100 mM NaCl. To investigate the atypical salt effect on A1-LCD phase separation, we carried out all-atom molecular dynamics simulations of systems comprising multiple A1-LCD chains at NaCl concentrations from 50 to 1000 mM NaCl. The ions occupy first shell as well as more distant sites around the IDP chains, with Arg sidechains and backbone carbonyls the favored partners of Cl- and Na+, respectively. They play two direct roles in driving A1-LCD condensation. The first is to neutralize the high net charge of the protein (+9) by an excess of bound Cl- over Na+; the second is to bridge between A1-LCD chains, thereby fortifying the intermolecular interaction networks in the dense phase. At high concentrations, NaCl also indirectly strengthens π-π, cation-π, and amino-π interactions, by drawing water away from the interaction partners. Therefore, at low salt, A1-LCD is prevented from phase separation by net charge repulsion; at intermediate concentrations, NaCl neutralizes enough of the net charge while also bridging IDP chains to drive phase separation. This drive becomes even stronger at high salt due to strengthened π-type interactions. Based on this understanding, four classes of salt dependence of IDP phase separation can be predicted from amino-acid composition.

Kinetic and Mechanistic Investigation of L‐Phenylalanine Oxidation by Alkaline Cu(III) Periodate in CPC Micellar Medium

ABSTRACTAmino acid oxidation is fascinating because different oxidants produce diverse compounds. No research has examined how metal catalysts affect amino acid oxidation by diperiodatocuprate (III) (DPC) in micellar environments. This research is crucial to understanding amino acids in redox processes and identifying active species of Ru(III) and DPC. The study will evaluate how cationic surfactant affects Ru(III)‐facilitated L‐phenylalanine (L‐Pheala) oxidation utilizing DPC in an alkaline medium. The reaction's advancement has been assessed employing the pseudo‐first‐order condition as a gauge for [OH−], [DPC], ionic strength, [L‐Pheala], [Ru(III)], [IO4−], [Surfactant], and temperature. L‐Pheala and DPC interact stoichiometrically in a ratio of 1:4. Across the spectrum of concentrations examined, the reported reaction reflects less than unit order kinematics in relation to both [L‐Pheala] (0.61 in the aqueous medium and 0.58 in the CPC micellar medium) and [OH−] (0.47 in the aqueous medium and 0.51 in the CPC micellar medium), first‐order reliance on the [DPC] and [Ru(III)], and negative fractional‐order for [IO4−] (−0.54 in the aqueous medium and −0.56 in the CPC micellar medium). A zero salt effect is suggested by the observed constancy in oxidation rate with the inclusion of electrolytes. The oxidation rate is significantly enhanced by Ru(III) solution (as a catalyst) at ppm concentration. Cetylpyridinium chloride (CPC) micellar media facilitate an additional enhancement (four times) in the rate of the reaction. CPC thus exhibits an excellent compatibility with Ru(III) for the L‐Pheala oxidation using (DPC).

Probing Single-Molecule Dynamics in Self-Assembling Viral Nucleocapsids.

All viruses on Earth rely on host cell machinery for replication, a process that involves a complex self-assembly mechanism. Our aim here is to scrutinize in real time the growth of icosahedral viral nucleocapsids with single-molecule precision. Using total internal reflection fluorescence microscopy, we probed the binding and unbinding dynamics of fluorescently labeled capsid subunits on hundreds of immobilized viral RNA molecules simultaneously at each time point. A step-detection algorithm combined with statistical analysis allowed us to estimate microscopic quantities such as the equilibrium binding rate and mean residence time, which are otherwise inaccessible through traditional ensemble-averaging techniques. Additionally, we could estimate a set of rate constants modeling the growth kinetics from nonequilibrium measurements, and we observed an acceleration in growth caused by the electrostatic screening effect of monovalent salts. Single-molecule fluorescence imaging will be crucial for elucidating virus self-assembly at the molecular level, particularly in crowded, cell-like environments.

Charge State of Weak Polyelectrolyte Brushes Determines Salt-Dependent Swelling and Hysteretic Behavior.

We investigate the combined effects of ionizable monomer fraction f, pH, and monovalent salt concentration Cs on the swelling of weak polyelectrolyte brushes (PEBs) by using in situ ellipsometry. Our system consists of random copolymers of basic (2-(dimethylamino)ethyl acrylate, DMAEA) and neutral (2-hydroxyethyl acrylate, HEA) monomers at varying fractions of ionizable monomer. Swelling of the brushes qualitatively follows the trends predicted by scaling laws for PEBs under different charge states but quantitatively deviates at specific ionic strengths and pH values. We posit these deviations stem from the lack of excluded volume effects and assumptions of strong chain stretching in current theoretical models. Most notably, we uncover a salt-dependent, nonmonotonic hysteretic behavior as weak PEB brushes are cycled from protonated to deprotonated and back. The nonmonotonic trend of hysteresis with salt can be explained by an interplay between the protonation facilitating effects of salt in the osmotic regime and the charge screening effects in the salted regime, which make charge distribution along weak PEBs more uniform. Our results provide insight into the mechanisms that determine whether polyelectrolytes exhibit weak versus strong polyelectrolyte behavior in various environmental conditions.

Synergistic effect of carbothermal reduction and sodium salts leaching in the process of iron recovery from copper slag

Copper slag is mostly considered a waste material and around 41wt% of total iron content present in it is lost. Iron is mostly present in copper slag as fayalite (Fe2SiO4). In this study, Iron was recovered by the decomposition of Fe2SiO4 using the synergistic effect of carbothermal reduction and sodium salts leaching for the first time. The results showed that 68.39% of iron was recovered from copper slag by carbothermal reduction at 1000oC for 1hr. The iron recovery increased to 83.45, 93.39 and 97.8%, respectively, after further 1hr leaching by 2M NaOH, 1M Na2CO3 and 2M NaOH+1M Na2CO3 at 100oC. The leaching results indicated that the increased NaOH concentration from 1 to 2M improved the removal of silica, which in turn led to higher iron recovery. The increase of Na2CO3 concentration from 1 to 2M showed a negative effect on iron recovery. The combination of 2M NaOH and 1M Na2CO3, however, led to the highest iron recovery of 97.8% because NaOH+Na2CO3 gives Na2O that is easier to react with SiO2 with only -194.3kJ energy requirement. Mass balance calculations indicated that before the leaching process, 345kg mass was lost, whereas, after the leaching process the amount of discarded waste was only 260.8g. Therefore, the present study not only provides 97.8% iron recovery but also reduces the discharge of secondary solid waste due to no addition of additives.

Bile Acid Nanoparticles - An Emerging Approach for Site Specific Drug Targeting

Abstract: Bile acids, a group of steroidal acids present in the bile act as biological surfactants and ligands for bile acid transporter proteins for signalling molecules to perform various paracrine and endocrine functions. The enterohepatic circulation of bile acids can be exploited to develop at-tractive drug delivery approaches with improved targetability of facial amphiphiles and enhanced drug bioavailability by improving absorption and metabolic stability. The effectiveness, safety and targetability of nanoparticles conjugated with bile acids and salts have been discussed in the present review. Various modifications of bile acids promoting absorption and oral bioavailability of drugs for treatment of various disease conditions such as cancer, diabetes and psychosis has al-so been discussed. Additionally, neuroprotective effect of bile acids and salts has demonstrated utility in various neurodegenerative disorders. Nanoparticles based on bile acids and salts repre-sent an area of emergent interest due to their unique and modifiable properties for improving ef-fectiveness of drugs.

Study on solubility and solvation thermodynamics for the advancement of biorelevant activities of l-isoleucine and l-serine in aqueous ammonium chloride solutions in the temperature range of 288.15–308.15 K

This study investigated the dissolution behavior of l-isoleucine and l-serine in an aqueous salt solution (ammonium chloride), examining how variations in temperature and electrolyte concentration affect their solubility. We conducted careful experiments and used mathematical calculations to explore interactions at a molecular level. We observed that the structure of these amino acids and salt concentration in the aqueous medium influence their interactions, which affects dissolution. In the presence of electrolytes, l-isoleucine demonstrated a salting-out effect whereas l-serine showed a salting-in effect. This work examines the solute–solvent interactions of these solutes in aqueous ammonium chloride solutions. l-isoleucine exhibits a nonspontaneous reaction with increasing salt concentrations whereas l-serine shows spontaneous behavior. Gibbs free energy analysis revealed greater stability of l-serine. The pH and conductance measurements showed how these factors influence solution properties. This insight helps us comprehend the nature and behavior of these molecules in different situations, which could be helpful in drug formulation or protein purification in the future.

Oxidation of glyoxal with the Mo-oxime complex in a benzalkonium chloride interface: Raghavan and Srinivasan kinetic model

Gaining an understanding of the glucose oxidation product (glyoxal) interaction with the metal–organic complex in a biological environment is pivotal to its usage. Thus, the glyoxal (Gyx) oxidation with Mo-oxime complex (MC) is studied with the spectrophotometric method, following a pseudo-phase approach. The result highlights the inclusion of hydrolysis, ion catalysis, the neutral primary salt effect, and radical generation as the essential factors in Gyx oxidation, with the exclusion of intermediate species formation. The hydrolysis of Gxy is observed to actively engage MC without charge inhibition as charge-neutral reacting species are involved, thus, implicating neutral primary salt effect where the variation of ionic strength of the system keeps the redox rate unchanged. The involvement of charge-neutral specie at the rate controlling step encouraged electrostatic attraction when Mg2+ ion additive is incorporated into the system, leading to ion catalysis. The generation of free radical from Gxy aids the emergence of formic acid. The zero intercept of Michealis-Menten type plot and the non-appreciable shift in the maximum absorption wavelength of the reaction system and MC rule-out the presence of intermediate species. The contribution of thermodynamic enthalpy is instrumental in the redox process, leading to the formic acid product. The inclusion of benzalkonium chloride (BZC) hastens the Gxy oxidation, which is supported by Raghavan and Srinivasan’s model.

Electrochemical conversion of rice husk in molten salts to photocatalyst for CO2 photoreduction

Photocatalysts obtained from waste biomass by molten salt electrolysis can photocatalytically reduce carbon dioxide under simulated photosynthesis, which is of great significance for carbon neutrality. Herein, a molten-salt electrochemical synthesis strategy that silicon-carbide nanowires mixed carbon (SiC/C) is obtained at the cathode by absorption of molten salt and migration in molten salt with the rice husk (RHs) is especially used as the anode is reported. This study shows the excellent absorption and migration effect of molten salt on RHs pyrolysis products SiO2 and CO2. At the same time, the unilateral consumability of the anode is more advantageous in device design. The obtained SiC/C photocatalyst has an excellent performance in photocatalytic reduction of CO2.

Genome-wide identification and expression analysis of the OSC gene family in Platycodon grandiflorus

Platycodon grandiflorus stands as one of the most extensively utilized traditional Chinese medicinal herbs, with triterpenoids and their derivatives serving as its primary medicinal components. Oxido squalene cyclase (OSC), serving as a crucial enzyme in the triterpenoid synthesis pathway, has the capability to enzymatically generate significant quantities of sterols and triterpenoid intermediates. While the OSC gene family has been identified in numerous species, bioinformatics research on this family remains scant. Presently, the specific members of this gene family in Platycodon grandiflorus have yet to be definitively determined. In this study, we successfully identified a total of 15 PgOSC genes within the genome of Platycodon grandiflorus by conducting homology comparisons. These genes were discovered to be unevenly distributed across the five chromosomes of the species, organized in the form of gene clusters. Subsequently, we conducted a thorough analysis of the OSC gene family’s evolutionary relationship by constructing a phylogenetic tree. Other characteristics of PgOSC family members, including gene structure, conserved motifs, protein three-dimensional structure, subcellular localization, and cis-acting elements were thoroughly characterized. Furthermore, We analyzed the expression of PgOSC gene in different tissues of Platycodon grandiflorus by qRT-PCR, and found that the expression of PgOSC genes in root was higher than that in stem and leaf. Upon comparing the effects of salt, heat, and drought treatments, we observed a significant induction of PgOSC gene expression in Platycodon grandiflorus specifically under salt stress conditions. In summary, this study comprehensively identified and analyzed the OSC gene family, aiming to provide basic biological information for exploring the members of PgOSC gene family.

Methodological approaches to the comparative assessment of cellular reactions of innate immunity in mollusk <I>Pomacea</I> sp. (<I>Caenogastropoda, Ampullariidae</I>) in experimental aseptic inflammation

One of the significant methodological problems that arise in the study of cells of the innate immunity of invertebrates is the unsuitability of culture media and even salt solutions intended for mammals and humans. Another important methodological point is the significantly pronounced reactions of coagulation, which play an important protective role in all invertebrates, but manifest themselves in vitro in cellular suspensions prepared even with optimal saline solutions for this animal. To solve this problem, researchers widely use an anticoagulation buffer with ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA) even in functional tests. From the standpoint of traditional approaches of mammalian immunology, the use of EDTA is possible only for the study of cell morphology, but not their functions. The aim of the work is to adapt methodological approaches to the comparative assessment of cellular reactions of innate immunity in Pomacea sp mollusks in experimental aseptic inflammation. To evaluate the functions of phagocytic cells in mollusk Pomacea sp., we used a complete salt solution (CSS) with optimal concentrations of glucose, calcium ions, magnesium with addition to prevent coagulation, cellular aggregation and degranulation instead of EDTA sodium salt of heparin at a concentration of 100 IU/mL (CSS-hep). As a result of a specially conducted experiment, it was shown that during incubation of hemolymph cells in this solution, their viability is preserved, evaluated by flow laser cytometry during incubation with annexin V-PE (PE Annexin V) and 7-aminoactinomycin D (7- AAD), as well as in a test with trypan blue. The possibility of studying the phagocytic activity and a phagosome acidification of leukocytes from hemolymph, hematopoiesis organ (kidney) and the focus of inflammation induced by intramuscular injection of sterile suspension of zymosan using CSS-hep is shown. Unlike the Limnaea stagnalis and Biomphalaria glabrata mollusks, in which the production of reactive oxygen species by phagocytes in the luminol-dependent chemiluminescence reaction is well documented, we were unable to induce this reaction in Pomacea sp. mollusks. In a specially conducted experiment, we did not reveal the effect of the sodium salt of heparin at a concentration of 100 IU/mL on the production of reactive oxygen species by rat phagocytes.

Across‐Interface Effect of Alkylamine Salt on the Formation of Intermediate Phase and Defect Passivation in High‐Performance of Perovskite Solar Cells

AbstractHigh‐quality and low‐defect perovskite active layer (PVK) and electron transport layer (ETL) are essential for high‐performance perovskite solar cells (PSCs). Herein, an alkylamine salt, cyclohexylmethylammonium chloride (CMACl) is introduced into tin oxide (SnO2) ETL. CMACl, possessing protonated −NH3+ group and Cl− ions, not only effectively inhibits the aggregation of SnO2 colloids and enhances the quality of the ETLs, but also reduces and passivates the defects on ETLs. On the other hand, via the across‐interface effect of alkylamine salt by thermal diffusion, the CMACl‐PbI2 intermediate phase is formed and leads to the high quality of PVK, meanwhile, the defect on the buried interfaces and in the bulk of PVK are passivated by CMA+ and Cl− ions. Consequently, the CMACl‐modified PSC achieves a preeminent power conversion efficiency of 25.47% and excellent stability. This work demonstrates a facile and effective approach for synchronous optimization of ETL and PVK for high‐performance PSCs by across‐interface effect.

Antibacterial Materials: Influence of the Type and Conditions of Biological Tests on the Measured Antibacterial Activity.

In recent years, the growing problem of antibiotic resistance has highlighted the need for antibacterial materials to prevent the development of infections. Different types of tests exist to certify the antibacterial properties of materials. Variations in results can occur due to the unique requirements of each test technique. The antibacterial test result may be influenced, in particular, by the distinct modes of action of leaching and non-leaching compounds. Using antibacterial materials prepared by the dispersion of an amphiphilic cationic synthetic copolymer in a polyurethane matrix, the influence of the reaction medium and the contact time on the results obtained by two well-established tests: ISO 22196 and CERTIKA is investigated. This shows that the kinetics of killing is bacteria dependent and depending on the test conditions (concentration of salt, time of contact, or media), contradictory results could be obtained. Moreover, the influence of the ionic strength (called salt effect) in both free solution and antibacterial surface is highlighted.

Dietary salt, vascular dysfunction, and cognitive impairment.

Excessive salt consumption is a major health problem worldwide leading to serious cardiovascular events including hypertension, heart disease and stroke. Additionally, high salt diet has been increasingly associated with cognitive impairment in animal models and late-life dementia in humans. High salt consumption is harmful for the cerebral vasculature, disrupts blood supply to the brain and could contribute to Alzheimer's disease pathology. Although animal models have advanced our understanding of the cellular and molecular mechanisms, additional studies are needed to further elucidate the effects of salt on brain function. Furthermore, the association between excessive salt intake and cognitive impairment will have to be more thoroughly investigated in humans. Since the harmful effects of salt on the brain are independent by its effect on blood pressure, in this review, I will specifically discuss the evidence, available in experimental models and humans, on the effects of salt on vascular and cognitive function in the absence of changes in blood pressure. Given the strong effects of salt on the function of immune cells, I will also discuss the evidence linking salt consumption to gut immunity dysregulation with particular attention to the ability of salt to disrupt T-helper 17 (Th17) cells homeostasis. Lastly, I will briefly discuss the data implicating IL-17A, the major cytokine produced by Th17 cells, in vascular dysfunction and cognitive impairment.