Effects Of Retrieval Practice Research Articles

A complementary learning systems model of how sleep moderates retrieval practice effects.

While many theories assume that sleep is critical in stabilizing and strengthening memories, our recent behavioral study (Liu & Ranganath, 2021, Psychonomic Bulletin & Review,28[6], 2035-2044) suggests that sleep does not simply stabilize memories. Instead, it plays a more complex role, integrating information across two temporally distinct learning episodes. In the current study, we simulated the results of Liu and Ranganath (2021) using our biologically plausible computational model, TEACH, developed based on the complementary learning systems (CLS) framework. Our model suggests that when memories are activated during sleep, the reduced influence of temporal context establishes connections across temporally separated events through mutual training between the hippocampus and neocortex. In addition to providing a compelling mechanistic explanation for the selective effect of sleep, this model offers new examples of the diverse ways in which the cortex and hippocampus can interact during learning.

Examining the influence of item exposure and retrieval practice effects on test performance in a large‐scale workforce development training programme

AbstractMany workforce development training programmes use learning gains as a measure of programme effectiveness. However, research on K‐12 education suggests that posttest scores may be influenced by pretesting effects. Pretesting may improve posttest performance by giving learners preknowledge of posttest content. Alternatively, pretesting may enhance learning via the retrieval practice effect. Cross‐classified analysis was used to detect pretesting effects in archival data from a large‐scale agriculture workforce development programme. Data included scores from 14,302 learners, 352 trainers and 261 training centres. Results indicated that pretesting led to higher scores on posttests. Follow‐up logistic regression analyses found no effect for time lag between pretest and posttest. In addition, pretested learners did not perform better on items that were included on both forms, suggesting that score differences were due to retrieval practice effects rather than preknowledge of posttest content. These results provide evidence that pretesting may enhance learning in large‐scale workforce development training courses.

The effect of retrieval practice on vocabulary learning for DHH children

Abstract On average, deaf and hard-of-hearing (DHH) children have difficulty developing expressive spoken vocabulary comparable to hearing peers. Yet, there are no evidence-based practices to guide classroom instruction for teachers of the deaf. Retrieval practice—a robust learning strategy—has been shown to improve children’s retention of vocabulary, but it has not been investigated with DHH children who use listening and spoken language. The present study examined whether DHH children benefit from using retrieval practice to learn new vocabulary. Sixteen DHH children (in the age range of 5.0–8.11 years) were taught a set of new vocabulary words using retrieval practice or repeated exposure. A recall test was administered two days later. Results showed that DHH children were twice as likely to recall a word taught through retrieval practice than exposure (OR = 2.01, p = .02). Presence of an additional diagnosis and number of practice trials were also significant predicting factors of vocabulary learning.

Single-paper meta-analyses of the effects of spaced retrieval practice in nine introductory STEM courses: is the glass half full or half empty?

BackgroundUndergraduate STEM instructors want to help students learn and retain knowledge for their future courses and careers. One promising evidence-based technique that is thought to increase long-term memory is spaced retrieval practice, or repeated testing over time. The beneficial effect of spacing has repeatedly been demonstrated in the laboratory as well as in undergraduate mathematics courses, but its generalizability across diverse STEM courses is unknown. We investigated the effect of spaced retrieval practice in nine introductory STEM courses. Retrieval practice opportunities were embedded in bi-weekly quizzes, either massed on a single quiz or spaced over multiple quizzes. Student performance on practice opportunities and a criterial test at the end of each course were examined as a function of massed or spaced practice. We also conducted a single-paper meta-analysis on criterial test scores to assess the generalizability of the effectiveness of spaced retrieval practice across introductory STEM courses.ResultsSignificant positive effects of spacing on the criterial test were found in only two courses (Calculus I for Engineers and Chemistry for Health Professionals), although small positive effect sizes were observed in two other courses (General Chemistry and Diversity of Life). Meta-analyses revealed a significant spacing effect when all courses were included, but not when calculus was excluded. The generalizability of the spacing effect across STEM courses therefore remains unclear.ConclusionsAlthough we could not clearly determine the generalizability of the benefits of spacing in STEM courses, our findings indicate that spaced retrieval practice could be a low-cost method of improving student performance in at least some STEM courses. More work is needed to determine when, how, and for whom spaced retrieval practice is most beneficial. The effect of spacing in classroom settings may depend on some design features such as the nature of retrieval practice activities (multiple-choice versus short answer) and/or feedback settings, as well as student actions (e.g., whether they look at feedback or study outside of practice opportunities). The evidence is promising, and further pragmatic research is encouraged.

Lower constraint testing enhances the testing effect for some contextual details but not others.

Retrieval practice has been shown to be an effective means of learning new information, a memory phenomenon known as the testing effect or the retrieval practice effect. Some work suggests that the magnitude of the testing effect can be enhanced when the test used for retrieval practice uses fewer cues to retrieve previously studied information. It is unclear, however, whether such testing benefits extend to peripheral contextual details associated with studied materials (e.g., location where stimuli appear, font color in which items are presented, etc.). In this experiment, we examine both item memory (i.e., memory for the studied items) and context memory under conditions where the intervening test offers fewer cues (i.e., lower constraint) compared to more cues (higher constraint) to better understand item and context memory testing effects. Participants first studied word pairs presented in one of eight locations as well as in either red or green font color. Then, in the re-exposure phase, participants processed materials in two types of intervening tests (lower constraint and a higher constraint test) as well as in a restudy condition, before a final memory test. For item memory, results showed that memory was better in the lower constraint testing condition compared to both the higher constraint testing condition as well as the restudy (control) condition. For context memory, results indicated improved memory for location context under lower constraint testing compared to both higher constraint testing and restudy conditions. There was no difference in memory, however, for color context across all conditions. Overall, these findings suggest that providing fewer cues to aid retrieval in the intervening test can induce better memory for both items as well as some contextual details.

The effects of summarization and factual retrieval practice on text comprehension and text retention in elementary education.

When reading a text in school, the goal is both text comprehension and text retention. We examined the effects of the learning strategies summarization and factual retrieval practice on third- and fourth-grade pupils' text comprehension and retention of factual knowledge from a text, using restudy as a control condition. The experiment was conducted in an authentic classroom setting, with teachers executing the experiment using original course materials. In 2016, 57 regular third- and fourth-grade pupils (M = 9.04 years old) read three different texts, and each applied three different learning strategies (summarization, retrieval practice and restudy, which were counterbalanced across texts) in subsequent practice sessions. After a 2-week delay, a final test was administered. The learning strategy summarization had a larger positive effect on text comprehension than factual retrieval practice, but had a similar effect compared to restudy. The learning strategy factual retrieval practice had a larger positive effect on text retention than both summarization and restudy. Implications for educational practice are discussed. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

A lack of retrieval practice effects in children's recognition and recall memory of novel words during storybook reading

IntroductionRetrieval practice enhances adults' long-term memory over restudying. However, it is less clear whether young children also benefit from retrieval practice. This study assessed whether retrieval practice could support children's novel word learning in the context of storybook reading.MethodIn Experiments 1–3, preschoolers (N = 167, RangeAge = 26–68 months) were presented with 10 novel word-object pairs across four consecutive storybook readings. Half of the children were read the storybook four times (i.e., SSSS), whereas the other half of the children were read the storybook once and were then asked to retrieve the novel words during the subsequent three readings (i.e., STTT). Children's recall and recognition memory for the novel words was tested after a 5-min delay.Results and discussionResults revealed that although children had high retrieval success during learning, retrieval practice did not provide an advantage over re-reading for children's recall (Experiment 1), even when additional mapping and retrieval opportunities were provided (Experiment 2); that is, children who engaged in retrieval practice did not outperform children who re-read the storybooks. A retrieval practice effect also did not emerge in children's recognition memory of novel words (Experiment 3). Taken together, this study suggests that retrieval practice may only benefit young children under specific learning conditions. Future research should therefore consider characteristics of the learner and broader learning context to explain developmental differences in retrieval practice effects.

Retrieval practice reduces relative forgetting over time

ABSTRACT There is overwhelming evidence in the literature that retrieval practice of studied material can lead to better final recall than restudy of the same material. Far less clear is whether this recall benefit is accompanied by reduced subsequent forgetting over time. This study revisited the issue in two experiments by comparing the effects of retrieval practice – with and without feedback –, restudy, and a no-practice condition on recall across different delay intervals ranging between three minutes and several days. We fitted power functions of time to the recall rates of each practice condition and compared relative forgetting rates between conditions. The comparisons showed that relative forgetting was reduced after retrieval practice relative to restudy, the relative forgetting rate after retrieval practice was unaffected by the presence of feedback, and forgetting after restudy did not differ from the no-practice condition. Together with other findings in the literature, the results provide evidence that retrieval practice reduces relative forgetting over time.

Effect of retrieval practice and drawing on high school students’ conceptual understanding of the carbon cycle

Both learner-generated drawing and retrieval practice methods are effective to enhance science learning. To compare the impact of combining different drawing methods (representational drawing vs. abstract drawing) with retrieval practice on the carbon cycle learning, 136 Chinese high school students enrolled in a geography course were assigned randomly to six learning conditions: students built their mental models of the carbon cycle by either generating sketches with or without access to the text learning material introducing the carbon cycle (i.e., generative sketching vs. retrieval sketching), or by creating concept maps with or without access to the learning material (i.e., generative concept mapping vs. retrieval concept mapping), or students just freely recalled on what they have learned from the learning material by paragraphing (i.e., retrieval practice), or restudied the learning material with note-taking (i.e., restudy). Students’ learning outcomes were assessed by immediate and one-week delayed tests. Results revealed that no difference was found between the six conditions on the immediate test, whereas students in the retrieval practice condition with paragraphing significantly outperformed those who did not practice retrieval on the one-week delayed test. However, there was no difference between the two drawing conditions regardless of whether they were adopted with or without retrieval practice. Furthermore, the same pattern was found on the factual knowledge questions in both tests, but no main effect of condition was found on both the immediate and the delayed tests for the application questions. We conclude that retrieval-based drawing could be adopted for climate change education at the high school level.

The effect of retrieval practice on fluently retrieving multiplication facts in an authentic elementary school setting

AbstractFluently retrieving simple multiplication facts leads to an improvement of overall math scores. In the current study, we investigated how to best reach this fluency in an authentic elementary school setting. We compared the short‐term and long‐term effects of the learning strategies retrieval practice (using flashcards) to a restudy control condition (chanting multiplication facts out loud) on multiplication fact fluency. Forty‐eight second‐grade pupils received an instruction lesson and attended three spaced practice sessions per learning strategy. The learning strategies were counterbalanced across two different sets of multiplication tables in a within‐subjects design. A pre‐test, a five‐minute delay post‐test, and a one‐week delay post‐test were administered. Compared to restudy, retrieval practice led to a stronger short‐term and long‐term increase in the fluency of retrieving multiplication facts. This study demonstrates the effectiveness of retrieval practice on gaining multiplication fact fluency in an authentic classroom setting using original course materials.

Spaced Retrieval Practice: Can Restudying Trump Retrieval?

We investigated spaced retrieval and restudying in 3 preregistered, online experiments. In all experiments, participants studied 40 Swahili–English word pair translations during an initial study phase, restudied intact pairs or attempted to retrieve the English words to Swahili cues twice in three spaced practice sessions, and then completed a final cued-recall test. All 5 sessions were separated by 2 days. In Experiment 1, we manipulated the response format during retrieval (covert vs. overt) and the test list structure (blocked vs. intermixed covert/overt retrieval trials). A memory rating was required on all trials (retrieval: “Was your answer correct?”; restudy: “Would you have remembered the correct translation?”). Response format had no effect on recall, but surprisingly, final test performance for restudied items exceeded both the overt and covert retrieval conditions. In Experiment 2, we manipulated the requirement to make a memory rating. If a memory rating was required, final test restudy performance exceeded retrieval performance, replicating Experiment 1. However, the pattern was descriptively reversed if no rating was required. In Experiment 3, the memory rating was removed altogether, and we examined recall performance for items restudied versus retrieved once, twice, or thrice. Performance improved with practice, and retrieval performance exceeded restudy performance in all conditions. The reversal of the typical retrieval practice effect observed in Experiments 1 and 2 is discussed in terms of theories of reactivity of memory judgments.

Negative emotion amplifies retrieval practice effect for both task-relevant and task-irrelevant information

ABSTRACT Selective retrieval of task-relevant information often facilitates memory retention of that information. However, it is still unclear if selective retrieval of task-relevant information can alter memory for task-irrelevant information, and the role of emotional arousal in it. In two experiments, we used emotional and neutral faces as stimuli, and participants were asked to memorise the name (who is this person?) and location (where does he/she come from?) associated with each face in initial study. Then, half of the studied faces were presented as cues, and participants were asked to retrieve the corresponding names (Experiment 1) or locations (Experiment 2). Finally, all the faces were presented and participants were asked to retrieve both the corresponding names and locations. The results of the final test showed that retrieval practice not only enhanced memory of task-relevant information but also enhanced memory of task-irrelevant information. More importantly, negative emotion amplified the retrieval practice effect overall, with a larger retrieval-induced benefit for the negative than neutral condition. These findings demonstrated an emotional arousal amplification effect on retrieval-induced enhancement effects, suggesting that the advantage of the retrieved memory representations can be amplified by emotional arousal even without explicit goals in a task setting.

Performance feedback enhances test-potentiated encoding.

Long-term memory retention is enhanced after testing compared to restudying (testing effect). Notably, memory retrieval further improves when correct-answer feedback is provided after the retrieval attempt (test-potentiated encoding-TPE). To evaluate whether explicit positive or negative feedback further enhances memory performance beyond the effect of TPE, in two experiments additional explicit positive or negative performance-contingent feedback was presented before providing correct-answer feedback. After an initial exposure to the full material, 40 participants learned 210 weakly associated cue-target word pairs by either restudying or testing (Experiment 1). Depending on the accuracy of the retrieval attempt, the tested word pairs were followed by positive or negative performance feedback (50%) or no feedback (50%). Irrespective of the type of repetition, trials were followed by a restudy opportunity. Participants returned to perform a final cued-recall test (Day 2). Final test results replicated the testing effect (better memory performance for tested compared to restudied items). Explicit performance feedback in addition to correct-answer feedback increased retrieval performance, but only on Day 2. This pattern of results was replicated in Experiment 2 in an independent sample of 25 participants. To assess the specific effects of learning history, we also examined retrieval accuracy and reaction times during repetition cycles: Explicit feedback improved retrieval for material successfully encoded in the initial study phase (consistent positive feedback) as well as for material learned during the repetition phase (mixed positive and negative feedback). Performance feedback improves learning beyond the effects of retrieval practice and correct-answer feedback, suggesting that it strengthens memory representations and promotes re-encoding of the material.

Immediate Learning Benefits of Retrieval Tasks

Abstract: We investigated immediate learning benefits of retrieval tasks when followed by a self-regulated relearning opportunity, compared to a restudy task. We aimed to unravel the underlying metacognitive and motivational mechanisms. In a mixed-factorial design ( N = 104), we manipulated review task (retrieval vs. restudy) as a within-subjects factor in two experimental sessions, and task granularity (coarse- vs. fine-grained) as a between-subjects factor. The retrieval task led to an immediate learning benefit compared to a restudy task in Session 1, but not across sessions. The review-task order influenced the emergence of an immediate retrieval-practice effect. Mediation analyses for Session 1 revealed that decreased levels of both judgments of learning (JOL) and self-efficacy partially mediated the retrieval-task effect on the learning outcome. Fine-grained tasks increased JOL regulation accuracy; however, this increase did not translate into better relearning. Retrieval tasks can improve learning outcomes, also after short delays, specifically when relearning opportunities are provided.

Retrieval practice may not benefit mathematical word-problem solving.

The retrieval practice effect refers to the fact that one or even multiple retrievals of memory content during the same period are more effective than repeated studying to promote future memory retention. It is effective for numerous declarative knowledge learning materials. However, studies have demonstrated that retrieval practice does not benefit problem-solving skill learning. This study used worked examples from math word problem tasks as learning materials, considering the retrieval difficulty as the main factor. Experiment 1 explored the effect of retrieval practice on acquiring problem-solving skills under different initial testing difficulties. Experiment 2 manipulated the difficulty of materials as a variable to ascertain the effect of retrieval practice on problem-solving skills under different material difficulty levels. Experiment 3 introduced feedback variables to facilitate the generation of the retrieval practice effect and examined the effects of various difficulty feedback levels on problem-solving skills learning. Results showed that, compared with restudying examples (SSSS), the example-problem pairs (STST) did not promote delayed test performance. As for the retrieval practice effect, as no differences or advantages were found in the repeated study group on the immediate test, the retrieval practice group generally outperformed the repeated study group on the delayed test. However, across the three experiments, we found no evidence of retrieval practice affecting results during an enhanced delayed test. Therefore, there may be no retrieval practice effect on acquiring problem-solving skills from worked examples.

Neural correlates of retrieval practice on the learning and memory retention of L3 French vocabulary

ABSTRACT This study used event-related potential (ERP) and retrieval practice effect paradigm to investigate the neurocognitive mechanisms underlying the retrieval practice effect in a third language (L3) vocabulary learning. Thirty-five Chinese (First Language, L1)-English (Second Language, L2) bilinguals without prior knowledge of French (L3) studied 120 French (L3)–English (L2) word pairs and then practiced the word pairs through retrieval practice or repeated studying. On a final recognition test 30 minutes later, the participants were asked to perform old/new recognition judgments while recording electroencephalography (EEG) signals. Behavioural results found that retrieval practice led to a higher accuracy rate and faster response time in the final test than repeated studying. ERP results found that retrieval practice elicited less negative N400 waveforms than repeated studying at the frontal site and less negative N400 waveforms than new condition at the central-parietal sites. By contrast, retrieval practice only elicited more positive LPC waveforms than new condition at the parietal site. In sum, the present results provide first neural evidence that retrieval practice facilitates L3 (French) vocabulary learning. These findings suggest that retrieval practice might involve more semantic information processing in L3 vocabulary learning, which supports the elaborative retrieval hypothesis of the retrieval practice effect.

The benefit of retrieval practice on cued recall under stress depends on item difficulty

Retrieval practice, the act of recalling previously studied information, yields greater memory retention than repeated studying (retrieval practice effect). Retrieval practice can also protect memories against the negative effects of stress at retrieval in free recall tests. In cued-recall tests, however, retrieval practice may not provide complete protection against stress-related memory impairments. Here we ask whether these conflicting results may be explained by the relative difficulty of the study materials. Participants (59 men) first studied 40 Swahili-Portuguese word pairs. Half of the pairs were then repeatedly studied while the other half were repeatedly recalled. In each condition, half of the pairs were easy to remember (high in memorability) while the other half were more difficult to remember (low in memorability). Participants returned 1 week later for a final cued-recall test. Half of the participants underwent a stress-induction protocol (modified Socially Evaluated Cold Pressor Test) 25 min before the final test for all 40-word pairs; the other half underwent a control condition. Salivary cortisol and questionnaire responses were used to assess the efficacy of stress induction. Participants recalled more word pairs learned via retrieval practice than via repeated study, replicating previous research. More importantly, the results revealed an interaction such that stress decreased recall for easy items, but increased recall for difficult items that had been successfully retrieved during encoding (conditional analysis). The results suggest that the impact of stress on cued recall depends both on the learning strategy and on the intrinsic difficulty of the to-be-learned materials.

The test-retest reliability of the retrieval practice effect.

Retrieving information from memory, compared with different control conditions, improves subsequent retention of that information. Given the ubiquitous demonstration of this retrieval practice effect, researchers have asked whether such benefit is moderated by individual-difference variables. An implicit assumption in individual-difference research is that the retrieval practice effect at the participant level is reliable across participants. In this study, we tested this reliability assumption. In two sessions, 54 participants studied foreign-native word pairs, repeatedly restudied half of the word pairs, repeatedly retrieval-practised the other half, and, finally, took a final test for all pairs. Different word pairs were used in each session. We replicated the retrieval practice effect at the group level in Sessions 1 (d = 0.54, 95% confidence interval [CI] = [0.27, 0.80]) and 2 (d = 0.79 [0.53, 1.05]). In addition, we found that the retrieval practice effect at the participant level was reliable over a 1-week span both for absolute agreement, intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC) = .33 [.12, .51], and for consistency estimates, ICC = .35 [.14, .53]. The result bridges a gap in the literature of individual differences on the retrieval practice effect. We suggest that future studies identify whether, and under which experimental conditions, the retrieval practice effect at the participant level may show even greater reliability estimates than the ones reported here. The finding may also pave the way for studies assessing whether the magnitude of the retrieval practice effect is domain-general or paradigm-specific.

Retrieval practice plus feedback benefits a third language vocabulary learning

ABSTRACT Three experiments explored how retrieval practice and corrective feedback affect a third language (L3) vocabulary learning. In the first two experiments, Chinese–English bilinguals without prior French language experience studied English (Second Language, L2)–French (L3) word pairs in repeated studying or retrieval practice without (Experiment 1)/with (Experiment 2) corrective feedback. A final recognition test was administered after a 30-min retention interval. Experiment 3 was identical to Experiment 2 in all respects, except that Chinese (First Language, L1)–French (L3) word pairs were used as study materials. Experiment 1 found that repeated studying led to greater accuracy and faster response time on the final test than retrieval practice without feedback. However, the opposite results were found in Experiment 2: retrieval practice with feedback yielded superior performance compared with repeated studying. The benefit of retrieval practice plus feedback was also found in Experiment 3, while it produced larger gains than Experiment 2. These results demonstrate that retrieval practice plus feedback is a powerful learning strategy, and L1–L3 learning is more effective than L2–L3 learning for L3 vocabulary learning. Our findings support the bifurcation model of the retrieval practice effect.

Exploring the relationship between retrieval practice, self-efficacy, and memory.

Retrieval practice effect refers to improved memory on a final test for information retrieved one or more times. Although past theoretical work identifies cognitive mechanisms to explain retrieval practice benefits, it is possible that improving self-efficacy during learning may also contribute to better memory, in line with limited past work showing a relationship between self-efficacy and memory. Across two experiments, we examine the potential relationship between retrieval practice, self-efficacy, and memory. In Experiment 1, we examined the extent change in self-efficacy accounted for improved memory on a final test after retrieval practice compared with restudy. In Experiment 2, we gave participants (false) feedback that was either negative (i.e., you performed worse than others), neutral (i.e., you performed the same as others), or positive (i.e., you performed better than others) to more directly assess the effects of self-efficacy on memory under retrieval practice conditions. Results of Experiment 1 showed a significant retrieval practice effect, with memory on the final test being better after retrieval practice compared with restudy. Self-efficacy did not significantly mediate the retrieval practice effect. Results of Experiment 2, however, showed that decreases in self-efficacy due to (false) negative feedback resulted in worse memory performance compared with neutral feedback. Such findings may suggest that change in self-efficacy after retrieval practice attempts, particularly negative feedback, affects memory at final test. Overall, these findings suggest a relationship between retrieval practice, self-efficacy, and memory, and imply that interventions that influence self-efficacy may be a plausible mechanism to modulate memory under some conditions.