Effects Of Operating Parameters Research Articles

Modulation of struvite composition in full-scale nutrient recovery system using source-separated urine.

Using urine collected from a public restroom at a highway rest stop in Northern California, a full-scale nutrient recovery system involving a two-part system consisting of urine distillation followed by the precipitation of struvite crystals was characterized. The study examined the effects of different operational parameters of the coupled ammonium distillation and struvite process (CADSP) on the composition of struvite crystals and the overall nutrient recovery rates. System inputs that were investigated included the feed:steam (F:S), alkalinity source, and urinary pH. Overall, the findings demonstrate that the composition of the struvite produced can be varied by adjusting the preceding distillation unit process. Low F:S distillation operations result in high ammonium distillation rates which coincided with increased formation of magnesium potassium phosphate (MPP) while higher F:S operations led to conditions favorable to magnesium ammonium phosphate (MAP) precipitation. Therefore, low energy distillation operations (high F:S) are more conducive to MAP formation and high phosphorus recovery rates while high energy operations (Iow F:S) are more conducive to MPP formation. Sodium-based alkalinity sources should also be avoided in instances of low ammonium concentrations in the struvite precipitation tank to minimize the co-precipitation of magnesium sodium phosphate (MSP) with MPP.

Nurturing resource availability of ridesharing platforms by priming goal-oriented operational effectiveness

Ridesharing platforms test incentive schemes with variable commissions where drivers are compensated proportionate to their inputs. The operational effectiveness implications of these incentives, however, remain largely unexplored. We test the differential effects of operational effectiveness parameters of drivers’ service quality, service failure, and monetary value on drivers’ referral and churn behaviors. At a process level, we demonstrate the beneficial effects of goal-oriented (versus informational) feedback on drivers’ monetary value and service performance outcomes. Further, we investigate the moderating role of drivers’ organizational justice perceptions on these relationships. Using exogenous data from a cluster-randomized field experiment with 1,698 ridesharing drivers across 8 cities, we show that goal-oriented feedback improves operational effectiveness parameters. Additionally, these parameters improve the platform’s resource availability with drivers’ higher referrals and lower churn. Comprehensively, platforms can derive benefits in operational effectiveness and resource availability by priming drivers using goal-oriented feedback in tandem with a variable commission.

Heterogeneous Fenton Oxidation with Natural Clay for Textile Levafix Dark Blue Dye Removal from Aqueous Effluent

The ever-increasing technological advancement and industrialization are leading to a massive discharge of hazardous waste into the aquatic environment, calling on scientists and researchers to introduce environmentally benign solutions. In this regard, the current work is based on introducing Fuller’s earth, which is regarded as an environmentally benign material, as an innovative Fenton oxidation technology to treat effluent loaded with Levafix Dark Blue dye. Initially, Fuller’s earth was chemically and thermally activated, then subjected to characterization using a field-emission scanning electron microscope (FE-SEM) augmented with an energy-dispersive X-ray analyzer (EDX) and Fourier transform infrared (FTIR). This detailed the morphologies of the samples and the functional groups on the catalyst leading to the reaction with the dye. Fuller’s earth, augmented with hydrogen peroxide, was then introduced as a photo-Fenton oxidation system under UV illumination for dye oxidation. Moreover, a response surface mythological analysis was applied to optimize the most effective operational parameters. The experimental data revealed that the optimal Fuller’s earth dose corresponded to 1.02 mg/L using the optimal H2O2 of 818 mg/L at pH 3.0, and the removal efficiency reached 99%. Moreover, the thermodynamic parameters were investigated, and the data revealed the positive ∆G′ and negative ∆S′ values that reflect the non-spontaneous nature of oxidation at high temperatures. Additionally, the negative ∆H′ values suggest the occurrence of the endothermic oxidation reaction. Furthermore, the reaction followed the second-order kinetic model. Finally, the catalyst stability was investigated, and reasonable removal efficiency was attained (73%) after the successive use of Fuller’s earth reached six cyclic uses.

Photocatalytic degradation of the antidepressant drug bupropion. Performance, water matrix effect and identification of transformation products

The photocatalytic degradation of the antidepressant drug bupropion (BUP) has been studied using TiO2 as catalyst. Complete removal of the target compound is achieved within 90 min of treatment and the effect of various operational parameters like the catalyst dose, the initial concentration of the drug or the pH of the treated solution, have been evaluated. The influence of various inorganic or organic constituents usually present in natural waters like chloride or nitrate ions and humic acids respectively, was also investigated revealing a negative impact on the photocatalytic degradation process. Accordingly, the degradation of BUP was also evaluated in different water matrices like wastewater effluents or leachate exhibiting slower degradation kinetics. Finally, employing high-resolution mass spectrometry, 38 transformation products (TPs) have been identified 24 out of which have been presented for the first time herein.

Characterization of a Low-Temperature Plasma (LTP) Ambient Ionization Source Using Temporally Resolved Monochromatic Imaging Spectrometry.

The low-temperature plasma (LTP) probe is a common plasma-based source used for ambient desorption-ionization mass spectrometry (MS). While the LTP probe has been characterized in detail with MS, relatively few studies have used optical spectroscopy. In this paper, two-dimensional (2D) imaging at selected wavelengths is used to visualize important species in the LTP plasma jet. First, 2D steady-state images of the LTP plume for N2+ (391.2 nm), He I (706.5 nm), and N2 (337.1 nm) emissions were recorded under selected plasma conditions. Second, time-resolved 2D emission maps of radiative species in the LTP plasma jet were recorded through the use of a 200 ns detection gate and varying gate delays with respect to the LTP trigger pulse. Emission from He I, N2+, and N2 in the plasma jet region was found to show a transient behavior (often referred to as plasma bullets) lasting only a few microseconds. The N2+ and He I maps were highly correlated in spatial and temporal structure. Further, emission from N2 showed two maxima in time, one before and one after the maximum emission for N2+ and He I, due to an initial electronic excitation wave and ion-electron recombination, respectively. Third, the interaction of the LTP probe with a sample substrate and an electrically grounded metallic needle was studied. Emission from a fluorophore on the sample substrate showed an initial photon-induced excitation from plasma-generated photons followed by electronic excitation by other plasma species. The presence of a grounded needle near the plasma jet significantly extended the plasma jet lifetime and also generated a long-lived corona discharge on the needle. The effect of LTP operating parameters on emission spectra was correlated with mass-spectral results including reagent-ion signals. Lastly, five movies provide a side-by-side comparison of the temporal behavior of emitting species and insights into the interactions of the emission clouds with a sample surface as well as an external needle. Temporally and spatially resolved imaging provided insights into important processes in the LTP plasma jet, which will help improve analyte ion sampling in LTP-MS.

A parametric numerical study on the performance of polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cell with intermediate‐blocked interdigitated flow field designs

AbstractFlow field design is crucial for achieving higher performance in polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cells (PEMFCs). This study uses a two‐phase, multi‐component, and three‐dimensional model to simulate the performance of PEMFCs that use interdigitated flow field design with intermediate blocks on the cathode side. A detailed parametric study is presented to investigate the effects of various geometric and operational parameters. Of the parameters studied, inlet mass flow rate, relative humidity, and rib width had the greatest impact on cell performance. The results show that increasing the cathode stoichiometric ratio resulted in higher fuel cell performance for blocked interdigitated designs compared to parallel designs. In addition, using cathode channels with higher height values resulted in lower PEMFC performance for all flow fields. Higher values of rib/channel width ratio resulted in lower cell performance due to liquid water accumulation in the rib regions. However, at higher rib/channel width ratios, the positive effect of using interdigitated flow designs was more pronounced. Moreover, at a low relative humidity of RH = 25%, a 10.4% higher performance was obtained for the interdigitated type II compared to cases with RH = 100%, due to more effective over‐rib convection and higher water removal.

Effect of Operating Parameters on the Performance of Integrated Fixed-Film Activated Sludge for Wastewater Treatment.

Integrated fixed-film activated sludge (IFAS) is a hybrid wastewater treatment process that combines suspended and attached growth. The current review provides an overview of the effect of operating parameters on the performance of IFAS and their implications for wastewater treatment. The operating parameters examined include hydraulic retention time (HRT), solids retention time (SRT), dissolved oxygen (DO) levels, temperature, nutrient loading rates, and aeration. Proper control and optimization of these parameters significantly enhance the treatment efficiency and pollutant removal. Longer HRT and appropriate SRT contribute to improved organic matter and nutrient removal. DO levels promote the growth of aerobic microorganisms, leading to enhanced organic matter degradation. Temperature influences microbial activity and enzymatic reactions, impacting treatment efficiency. Nutrient loading rates must be carefully managed to avoid system overload or inhibition. Effective aeration ensures uniform distribution of wastewater and biofilm carriers, optimizing contact between microorganisms and pollutants. IFAS has been used in water reuse applications, providing a sustainable and reliable water source for non-potable uses. Overall, IFAS has proven to be an effective and efficient treatment process that can provide high-quality effluent suitable for discharge or reuse. Understanding the effects of these operating parameters helps to optimize the design and operation for efficient wastewater treatment. Further research is needed to explore the interactions between different parameters, evaluate their impact under varying wastewater characteristics, and develop advanced control strategies for improved performance and sustainability.

A Review on Effects of Operating Parameters in Batch and Column Mode for Adsorption of Methyl Violet Dye

Direct discharge of industrial effluents without treatment into natural sources poses a significant risk to the environment. Dye compounds are toxic and difficult for nature to process, causing serious physiologic harm to all organisms that come into contact with them. Water quality is directly impacted by the presence of methyl violet (MV) dye pigments as it reduces the photosynthetic activity of the streams, so it is crucial to eliminate it. Adsorption is generally accepted as a reliable method for getting rid of dye in wastewater. In most cases, the adsorption process is aided by the mutually beneficial interactions between the adsorbent, the dye, and the adsorption environment. This review highlights current scenarios of MV removal by various low-cost, eco-friendly adsorbents, and their efficiency. The removal of MV is examined in depth in this review paper, which discusses a variety of batch and column adsorption design experiments. Several parameters influence the adsorption process, which is the foundation of all laboratories looking for the best conditions. The primary goal of this review is to provide current information on the most researched affecting factors for batch and column operating modes. Flow rate, dye concentration, and bed height are all parameters in column adsorption investigations and contact time, pH, temperature, particle size, agitation speed, and adsorbent dose were all compiled for batch adsorption investigations and summarized in this review.

Performance analysis and multi-objective optimization of a vortex tube integrated single-stage vapour compression refrigeration cycle

This paper evaluates the thermodynamic performance of a vortex tube integrated single-stage vapour compression refrigeration cycle (VTC) in a subcritical region. The thermodynamic evaluation consists of an energy and exergy analyses for VTC in order to determine the effect of various design and operating parameters on its performance. Moreover, the results of VTC are compared with those of a simple vapour compression refrigeration cycle (i.e., VCR) for the considered range of evaporator and condenser temperatures using R1234yf as a refrigerant. The analysis reveals that the cooling capacity of VTC is 14.53% – 49.73% higher than that of VCR for the considered range of condenser temperature. Also, the maximum COP of VTC is 5.59% – 27.32% higher than that of VCR. The exergetic efficiency of VTC is 5.62% – 27.33% higher than that of VCR. A multi-objective optimization using a genetic algorithm has been conducted, which suggests that the evaporator temperature is the major decisive parameter to find the suitability of various applications of the system based on VTC.

Glycerol-assisted co-electrolysis in solid oxide electrolyzer cell (SOEC) for green syngas production: A 2D modelling study

A 2D multi-physics model is developed to study the glycerol-assisted SOEC co-electrolysis process, with a novel in-tube reformer to improve the fuel utilization and reduce the temperature difference. After model validation, the effects of key operating parameters on the electrochemical performance and temperature distribution of the system are investigated. It is found that glycerol assistance can significantly reduce the operating voltage of the SOEC co-electrolysis system, thus saving over 55 % of electrical energy at 1073 K. Besides, increasing operating voltage, operating temperature and cathode H2O molar fraction promote the co-electrolysis process, leading to an increase in cathode H2O/CO2 conversion. Optimal values of the anode/cathode flow rates (Qan = 70–110 SCCM and Qca = 125–175 SCCM) and the anode glycerol molar fraction (Xan,GL = 0.05–0.15) are obtained to achieve both good electrochemical performance and uniform temperature distribution. Meanwhile, the proposed in-tube reformer can greatly reduce the temperature difference inside the cell, and by precisely controlling the structure and operating parameters of the system, a more uniform internal temperature distribution can be obtained, even allowing the system to be operated at homogeneous temperature conditions. This study provides a reference for the commercialization of efficient green syngas production and CO2 recycling by using renewable electricity.

Boron Removal by Adsorption onto Different Oxides

A research was conducted to determine the feasibility of using adsorption process to remove boron from aqueous solutions using batch technique. Three adsorbent materials; magnesium, aluminum and iron oxide were investigated to find their abilities for boron removal. The effects of operational parameters on boron removal efficiency for each material were determined.The experimental results revealed that maximum boron removal was achieved at pH 9.5 for magnesium oxide and 8 for aluminum and iron oxide. The percentage of boron adsorbed onto magnesium,aluminum and iron oxide reaches up to 90, 42.5 and 41.5% respectively under appropriate conditions. Boron concentration in effluent water after adsorption via magnesium oxide comply with the allowable concentration according to WHO and the Iraqi drinking water guidelines, i.e. below 0.5 mg/l. Aluminum and iron oxide yield effluent water with boron concentration more than allowable limits. Accordingly,magnesium oxide is more suitable as adsorbent for boron removal from water; for its high adsorbent capacity and high removal ability for boron compared with aluminum and iron oxide.

Evaluation of peroxide assisted multi-oxidation systems for simultaneous removal of pharmaceutical active compounds from aqueous environment

This study aimed to evaluate the efficacy of peroxide assisted electro-chemical system (ECS) and photo-chemical system (PCS) in eliminating active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs). Aluminum (Al) and stainless steel (SS) electrodes were used in ECS, whereas visible light (450–495 nm) was applied in PCS to remove acetaminophen (ACT) and ciprofloxacin (CIP) from both mono-component (ACT/CIP) and multi-component (ACT+CIP) systems. The study explored effect of operational parameters, kinetics, and energy requirements for removing APIs using ECS and PCS. The results showed that in ECS, Al electrodes outperformed SS electrodes with 95.15% removal of ACT and 95.52% removal of CIP using four Al electrodes at 15 V for 60 min. On the other hand, PCS at optimal conditions i.e. 16 W light intensity and FeSO4 and H2O2 dose of 0.5 g/L and 0.06 mL/L, respectively resulted in 85.25% ACT and 96.70% CIP removal. The kinetic study demonstrated that the removal of ACT and CIP through ECS followed second-order kinetics, while PCS followed a first-order model. In both ECS and PCS, ACT and CIP exhibited slightly higher removal efficiency in mono-component systems compared to multi-component systems. The EEO for removal of both APIs ranged from 0.05 to 0.3 kWh/kg in ECS and 3.9–15 kWh/kg in PCS. In general, peroxide assisted ECS and PCS both offer effective and efficient means for simultaneous removal of APIs from effluents.

Effect of lifter shape and operating parameters on the flow of materials in a pilot rotary kiln: Part IV. Improvement of the hydrodynamics-related dimensionless correlations

Non-spherical particles are widely processed in industrial-scale rotary kilns. There is nonetheless a lack of simple tools that make it possible to predict their hydrodynamic behavior inside rotary kilns. This article thus focuses on the hydrodynamics of crozets flowing inside a pilot-scale rotary kiln. Thirty-eight experiments were conducted with this product. Experimental Residence Time Distribution curves were successfully obtained with a tracer pulse methodology using painted crozets. Both the experimental mean residence time and the axial dispersion coefficient were obtained by fitting the analytical expression of E(t) for the open-open boundary condition with the experimental E(t) curves. The hydrodynamic behavior observed was qualitatively in agreement with the literature. Our dimensionless models were then re-identified with all of the experimental data and simplified through statistical analysis. This study provides more robust dimensionless hydrodynamic models that can be used to reliably predict the behavior of non-spherical particle flow inside an industrial kiln.

Experimental study of pump-driven chip-level two-phase cooling system for data centres

In this study, we proposed and designed a pump-driven chip-level two-phase cooling system (PCTCS) and experimentally demonstrated that it can directly cool central processing units in data centres (DCs). The operation of the PCTCS involves an internal refrigerant cycle (IRC) and an external water cycle (EWC). Within the IRC, multiple mini-channel evaporators enable the dissipation of heat from the CPUs in the servers through a plate heat exchanger to initiate the EWC, which is followed by the dissipation of the heat to the environment. We performed experiments to systematically analyze the effects of key operation parameters on PCTCS performance of the IRC. The results indicated that the average and the highest core temperature of the CPUs were 76.3°C and 79.0°C, respectively, under extremely harsh heat dissipation conditions. The key driving component of the PCTCS is a refrigerant pump with high energy efficiency ratio (EERp) defined as ratio of heat dissipated by the power of the refrigerant pump. The EERp was 17–18 when the CPUs were at 0% load and 38–42 and 68–76 when the CPUs were at 50% and 100% loads, respectively. Moreover, optimizing the flow resistance of the IRC can improve the performance of the PCTCS.

A novel method for modeling the phase change of iron ore particles in the cohesive zone of a blast furnace

Cohesive zone plays a vital role in the stable operation of a blast furnace (BF), yet the complex phase change process of iron ore particles in this zone is still not well understood. In this study, a novel one-dimensional (1D) unsteady phase change model was developed to elucidate the heat transfer and melting mechanisms of iron ore particles. After model validation, the effects of several key operating parameters (e.g., particle diameter, gas velocity, initial temperature) on the phase change behavior of iron ore particles were analyzed, and the joint effect of multiple parameters was discussed. The results show that larger-sized iron ore particles possess lower specific surface areas, which in turn reduces their convective heat absorption capacity. Consequently, the distance from the solid-liquid phase interface to the particle surface increases, thereby slowing down the movement of the phase interface and prolonging the melting duration of the particles. Increasing the gas velocity and the initial temperature does not have a significant impact on reducing the duration of the complete melting process. Under the specified conditions, it is observed that increasing the gas velocity by 3-fold and 9-fold results in a reduction of the melting duration by 2.4% and 8.3%, respectively. Elevating the initial temperature of iron ore particles results in a decrease in the core-to-surface temperature difference, a slower heating rate, and a shorter duration to achieve melting. Among the factors affecting the melting process, the particle diameter is found to be the most significant in terms of the liquid phase precipitation, mushy zone thickness, and core-to-surface temperature difference of iron ore particles.

Flow boiling heat transfer enhancement in vertical minichannel heat sink with non-uniform microcavity arrays under electric field

Effects of electrohydrodynamics (EHD) on the bubble behavior and enhanced heat dissipation mechanism for four surface configurations and various heat fluxes in an upward flowing minichannel heat sink were studied experimentally. Three different minichannel configurations with microcavities array were fabricated using direct metal laser sintering. Flow boiling experiments of nanofluid (SiO2-R141b) under different nonuniform electric fields were performed. Homogeneity test of Variance Analysis was introduced to analyze the effect of design and operation parameters on heat transfer. Coupled effect of microcavity and electric field was further found to improve boiling heat transfer efficiency. Visualization shows that the diameter of small bubbles leaving microcavity increased under electric field. The bubbles wiggled between wire electrode and heated wall by action of electric field in bubbly flow district. Furthermore, the mechanism of perturbation of small bubbles flowing along the heating wall under electric field was discussed. It was revealed that the micro-concave cavity array distributed dense downstream and sparse upstream had a large impact on heat transfer coefficient (HTC), especially under electric field. The maximum synthetic enhancement factor of 2.11 was obtained for given flow conditions. Furthermore, a new predictive equation was proposed by a nonlinear regression equation to consider the effects of micro-concave cavity distribution and electric field factors on thermal transfer performance, and this correlation can predict the HTC affected by non-uniform micro-concave arrays well within the ± 10% error band.

Solar-Induced Photocatalytic Degradation of Reactive Red and Turquoise Dyes Using a Titanium Oxide/Xanthan Gum Composite

The present study explores the solar-induced photocatalytic degradation of reactive red (RR) and reactive turquoise (RT) dyes in a single system using TiO2 immobilized in xanthan gum (TiO2/XG), synthesized using the sol–gel dip-coating technique for direct precipitation. SEM-EDX, XRD, FTIR, and UV–Vis were used to assess the characteristics of the resulting catalyst. Moreover, the effects of different operating parameters, specifically pH, dye concentration, TiO2/XG concentration, H2O2 concentration, and contact time, were also investigated in a batch photocatalytic reactor. The immobilized TiO2/XG catalyst showed a slight adsorption degradation efficiency and then improved the RR and RT dye degradation activity (92.5 and 90.8% in 120 min) under solar light with a remarkable Langmuir–Hinshelwood pseudo-first-order degradation rate of 0.0183 and 0.0151 min−1, respectively, under optimum conditions of pH 5, dye concentration of 25 mg/L, TiO2/XG concentration of 25 mg/L, H2O2 concentration of 400 mg/L, and reaction time of 120 min. The improved photocatalytic ability was ascribed to the impact of TiO2/XG nanoparticles with a high surface area, and lower band gap energy. Solar light energy has significant potential for addressing energy deficit and water pollution concerns.

Effect of operational parameters on the performance of an anaerobic sequencing batch reactor (AnSBR) treating protein-rich wastewater

Treating protein-rich wastewater using cost-effective and simple-structured single-stage reactors presents several challenges. In this study, we applied an anaerobic sequencing batch reactor (AnSBR) to treat protein-rich wastewater from a slaughterhouse. We focused on identifying the key factors influencing the removal of chemical oxygen demand (COD) and the settling performance of the sludge. The AnSBR achieved a maximum total COD removal of 90%, a protein degradation efficiency exceeding 80%, and a COD to methane conversion efficiency of over 70% at organic loading rates of up to 6.2 g COD L−1 d−1. We found that the variations in both the organic loading rate within the reactor and the hydraulic retention time in the buffer tank had a significant effect on COD removal. The hydraulic retention time in the buffer tank and the reactor, which determined the ammonification efficiencies and the residual carbohydrate concentrations in the reactor liquid, affected the sludge settleability. Furthermore, the genus Clostridium sensu stricto 1, known as protein- and lipids-degraders, was predominant in the reactor. Statistical analysis showed a significant correlation between the core microbiome and ammonification efficiency, highlighting the importance of protein degradation as the governing process in the treatment. Our results will provide valuable insights to optimise the design and operation of AnSBR for efficient treatment of protein-rich wastewater.

Revealing impacts of operational modes on anaerobic digestion systems coupling with sulfate reduction

Anaerobic digestion (AD) is promising for treating high-strength wastewater. However, the effect of operational parameters on microbial communities of AD with sulfate is not yet fully understood. To explore this, four reactors were operated under rapid- and slow-filling modes with different organic carbons. Reactors in the rapid-filling mode generally exhibited a fast kinetic property. For example, the degradation of ethanol was 4.6 times faster in ASBRER than in ASBRES, and the degradation of acetate was 11.2 times faster in ASBRAR than in ASBRAS. Nevertheless, reactors in the slow-filling mode could mitigate propionate accumulation when using ethanol as organic carbon. Taxonomic and functional analysis further supported that rapid- and slow-filling modes were suitable for the growth of r-strategists (e.g., Desulfomicrobium) and K-strategists (e.g., Geobacter), respectively. Overall, this study provides valuable insights into microbial interactions of AD processes with sulfate through the application of the r/K selection theory.

Combined Effect of Operating Parameters and Nanoparticles on the Performance of a Diesel Engine: Response Surface Methodology-Coupled Genetic Algorithm Approach.

This paper's goal is to ascertain the optimum input parameters and nanoparticle concentrations for least emission and better performance by utilizing the genetic algorithm (GA) and response surface methodology (RSM) in a single-cylinder diesel engine running with 20% blend of biodiesel derived from Manilkara zapota seeds. Experiments to be conducted on the engine were designed with a central composite design (CCD) with input parameters of loads (20-100%), nanoparticle concentrations (NPCs, 0-80 ppm), compression ratios (CRs, 16.5-18.1), injection pressures (IPs, 190-230 bar), and injection timings [ITs, 17-29° bTDC (before top dead center)], and the engine response was recorded. The comparative analysis of optimization tools RSM and GA was employed for finding the ideal setting of engine input parameters and nanoparticle concentrations based on the maximization of performance [brake thermal efficiency (BTE) and brake-specific fuel consumption (BSFC)] and minimization of emissions [(hydrocarbon (HC), carbon monoxide (CO), and nitrogen oxides (NOx)]. The best result was obtained by the RSM method. The optimized input parameters were recorded at a load of 59.36%, an NPC of 80 ppm, a CR of 18.1, an IP of 192.02 bar, and an IT of 18.62° bTDC. At these optimized settings, the performance and emissions were 32.4767% BTE, 0.1905 kg/kW h BSFC, 26.8436 ppm HC, 0.0272% CO, and 83.854 ppm NOx emissions from the engine. The developed model was validated through a confirmatory experiment, and the prediction error was within 8%. Thus, the applied model is appropriate for improving the engine's emission and performance attributes.