Effects Of Fermented Red Ginseng Research Articles

Effect of fermented red ginseng on gut microbiota dysbiosis- or immobilization stress-induced anxiety, depression, and colitis in mice

BackgroundRed ginseng (RG) alleviates psychiatric disorders. Fermented red ginseng (fRG) alleviates stress-induced gut inflammation. Gut dysbiosis causes psychiatric disorders with gut inflammation. To understand the gut microbiota-mediated action mechanism of RG and fRG against anxiety/depression (AD), we investigated the effects of RG, fRG, ginsenoside Rd, and 20(S)-β-D-glucopyranosyl protopanaxadiol (CK) on gut microbiota dysbiosis-induced AD and colitis in mice. MethodsMice with AD and colitis were prepared by exposing to immobilization stress (IS) or transplanting the feces of patients with ulcerative colitis and depression (UCDF). AD-like behaviors were measured in the elevated plus maze, light/dark transition, forced swimming, and tail suspension tests. ResultsOral gavage of UCDF increased AD-like behaviors and induced neuroinflammation, gastrointestinal inflammation, and gut microbiota fluctuation in mice. Oral administration of fRG or RG treatment reduced UCDF-induced AD-like behaviors, hippocampal and hypothalamic IL-6 expression, and blood corticosterone level, whereas UCDF-suppressed hippocampal BDNF+NeuN+ cell population and dopamine and hypothalamic serotonin levels increased. Furthermore, their treatments suppressed UCDF-induced colonic inflammation and partially restored UCDF-induced gut microbiota fluctuation. Oral administration of fRG, RG, Rd, or CK also decreased IS-induced AD-like behaviors, blood IL-6 and corticosterone and colonic IL-6 and TNF-α levels, and gut dysbiosis, while IS-suppressed hypothalamic dopamine and serotonin levels increased. ConclusionOral gavage of UCDF caused AD, neuroinflammation, and gastrointestinal inflammation in mice. fRG mitigated AD and colitis in UCDF-exposed mice by the regulation of the microbiota-gut-brain axis and IS-exposed mice by the regulation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis.

Effect of fermented red ginseng on cytochrome P450 and P-glycoprotein activity in healthy subjects, as evaluated using the cocktail approach.

AimsWe assessed the drug interaction profile of fermented red ginseng with respect to the activity of major cytochrome (CYP) P450 enzymes and of a drug transporter protein, P‐glycoprotein (P‐gp), in healthy volunteers.MethodsThis study was an open‐label crossover study. The CYP probe cocktail drugs caffeine, losartan, dextromethorphan, omeprazole, midazolam and fexofenadine were administered before and after 2 weeks of fermented red ginseng administration. Plasma samples were collected, and tolerability was assessed. Pharmacokinetic parameters were calculated, and the 90% confidence intervals (CIs) of the geometric mean ratios of the parameters were determined from logarithmically transformed data. Values were compared between before and after fermented red ginseng administration using analysis of variance (anova).ResultsFifteen healthy male subjects were evaluated, none of whom were genetically defined as a poor CYP2C9, CYP2C19 or CYP2D6 metabolizer based on genotyping. Before and after fermented red ginseng administration, the geometric least‐square mean metabolic ratio (90% CI) was 0.901 (0.830–0.979) for caffeine (CYP1A2) to paraxanthine, 0.774 (0.720–0.831) for losartan (CYP2C9) to EXP3174, 1.052 (0.925–1.197) for omeprazole (CYP2C19) to 5‐hydroxyomeprazole, 1.150 (0.860–1.538) for dextromethorphan (CYP2D6) to dextrorphan, and 0.816 (0.673–0.990) for midazolam (CYP3A4) to 1‐hydroxymidazolam. The geometric mean ratio of the area under the curve of the last sampling time (AUClast) for fexofenadine (P‐gp) was 1.322 (1.112–1.571).ConclusionNo significantly different drug interactions were observed between fermented red ginseng and the CYP probe substrates following the two‐week administration of concentrated fermented red ginseng. However, the inhibition of P‐gp was significantly different between fermented red ginseng and the CYP probe substrates. The use of fermented red ginseng requires close attention due to the potential for increased systemic exposure when it is used in combination with P‐gp substrate drugs.

Preventive effect of fermented red ginseng on cisplatin-induced nephrotoxicity mouse

Red ginseng is known to have many beneficial effects. Cisplatin, an effective antineoplastic drug, can cause many side effects like irreversible sensorineural hearing loss and serious tinnitus in humans. This study is aimed to reduce a cisplatin's side effect, nephrotoxicity by fermentated korean red ginseng. Korea ginseng was produced by steaming and dring and fermentation. And mice were divided into 4 groups- (A) normal mice, (B) Vehicle treated cisplatin mice, (C) RG0F0-treated cisplatin mice, (D) RG8F3-treated cisplatin mice. C and D groups were feed each material 200 mg/kg/day during 4 days. And cisplatin 20 mg/kg injected to B, C, and D groups as abdominal injection. After 24 h, blood sample was collected. The kidneys were harvested for histological, immuno histochemical and western blot analysis. 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) and 2,2'-azinobis-3-ethyl- benzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid (ABTS) radical scavenging activity was depended on steaming hours. RG0F0 and RG8F3 (ginseng-8 h steamed and fermented by Saccharomyces cerevisiae) were showed antioxidants effect in DPPH and ABTS radical scavenging activity. Component amounts according to steaming hours. 8 h steamed red ginseng had the most ingredients of ginsenoside. Treatments with RG8F3 reduced cisplatin-induced nephrotoxicity in the mice resulting in increase of GSH and decrease of ROS, BUN, creatinine, and inflammatory mediators. This result seems to be involved with the restriction of the inflammation in the kidney. Therefore, fermented red ginseng might have therapeutic efficacy in reduce kidney injury induced by cisplatin treatment.

Fermented Red Ginseng Potentiates Improvement of Metabolic Dysfunction in Metabolic Syndrome Rat Models.

Metabolic syndrome including obesity, dyslipidemia and hypertension is a cluster of risk factors of cardiovascular disease. Fermentation of medicinal herbs improves their pharmacological efficacy. Red ginseng (RG), a widely used traditional herbal medicine, was reported with anti-inflammatory and anti-oxidant activity. Aim in the present study was to investigate that the effects of fermented red ginseng (FRG) on a high-fructose (HF) diet induced metabolic disorders, and those effects were compared to RG and losartan. Animals were divided into four groups: a control group fed a regular diet and tap water, and fructose groups that were fed a 60% high-fructose (HF) diet with/without RG 250 mg/kg/day or FRG 250 mg/kg/day for eight weeks, respectively. Treatment with FRG significantly suppressed the increments of body weight, liver weight, epididymal fat weight and adipocyte size. Moreover, FRG significantly prevented the development of metabolic disturbances such as hyperlipidemia and hypertension. Staining with Oil-red-o demonstrated a marked increase of hepatic accumulation of triglycerides, and this increase was prevented by FRG. FRG ameliorated endothelial dysfunction by downregulation of endothelin-1 (ET-1) and adhesion molecules in the aorta. In addition, FRG induced markedly upregulation of Insulin receptor substrate 1 (IRS-1) and glucose transporter type 4 (Glut4) in the muscle. These results indicate that FRG ameliorates obesity, dyslipidemia, hypertension and fatty liver in HF diet rats. More favorable pharmacological effects on HF diet induced metabolic disorders were observed with FRG, compared to an equal dose of RG. These results showed that the pharmacological activity of RG was enhanced by fermentation. Taken together, fermentated red ginseng might be a beneficial therapeutic approach for metabolic syndrome.

Antioxidant and hepatoprotective effects of fermented red ginseng against high fat diet-induced hyperlipidemia in rats.

This study was performed to investigate the antioxidant and hepatoprotective effects of fermented red ginseng (Panax ginseng C.A. Meyer; FRG) on high-fat diet-induced hyperlipidemia in rats. Sprague-Dawley rats were divided into four groups of seven: normal control, NC; high-fat diet control, HFC; high-fat diet–0.5% FRG, HF-FRGL; and high-fat diet–1% FRG, HF-FRGH. All rats were fed a high-fat diet for eight weeks, except those in the NC group, while rats in the FRG treatment groups received drinking water containing 0.5% or 1% FRG. After eight weeks of treatment, levels of alanine aminotransferase (ALT), aspartate aminotransferase (AST), total cholesterol (TC), triglycerides (TG), low-density lipoprotein-cholesterol (LDL-C), and high-density lipoprotein-cholesterol (HDL-C) in the serum were measured. The concentration of the oxidative stress marker malondialdehyde (MDA), and activity of antioxidant enzymes including superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), and glutathione peroxidase (GSH-Px) in rat liver were evaluated. Histological analysis of the liver was performed using hematoxylin and eosin. The high-fat diet markedly increased serum levels of ALT, AST, TC, TG, and LDL-C and hepatic MDA levels, while administration of FRG to the hyperlipidemic rats resulted in a significant decline in the levels of these parameters. Furthermore, the decline in the levels of serum HDL-C and hepatic SOD, CAT, and GSH-Px induced by the high-fat diet was attenuated by FRG treatment. In addition, histopathological analysis of liver sections suggested that FRG treatment also provided protection against liver damage. These results suggested that FRG improved lipid profiles, inhibited lipid peroxidation, and played a protective role against liver injury in hyperlipidemic rats.

Adjuvant effects of fermented red ginseng extract on advanced non-small cell lung cancer patients treated with chemotherapy.

To investigate the adjuvant therapeutic effects of fermented red ginseng (FRG) extract on non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) patients treated with chemotherapy. A total of 60 patients with advanced NSCLC were divided into two groups using a random number table, i.e., the gemcitabine plus cisplatin (GP) chemotherapy alone group (26 patients) and the FRG + GP chemotherapy group (34 patients), for 60-day treatment. Patients were then assessed according to the Fatigue Symptom Inventory, Chinese medicine symptoms score, Self-Rating Anxiety Scale, Self-Rating Depression Scale, Karnofsky Performance Status Scale, and Functional Assessment of Cancer Therapy-Lung. In addition, chemotherapy toxicity and tumor biomarkers were measured. For NSCLC patients after chemotherapy, FRG extract significantly improved the FSI score, CM symptoms score, psychological status, physical conditions, and quality of life and reduced chemotherapy toxicity, but the expression levels of carcinoembryonic antigen, cytokeratin-19 fragments, and neuron-specific enolase were not significantly different between the chemotherapy alone and the FRG + chemotherapy groups or between pre- and post-treatments. This study demonstrated that FRG extract had an adjuvant effect on advanced NSCLC patients treated with chemotherapy. Further studies with a larger sample size will verify the current findings.

Effects of Fermented Red Ginseng on High‐Fructose induced Metabolic Syndrome

The red ginseng (RG), a widely used traditional herbal medicine, was reported with anti‐inflammatory and anti‐oxidant activity. Aim in the present study was to investigate that the effects of fermented red ginseng (FRG) on high‐fructose (HF) diet induced metabolic disorders, and those effects were compared to RG and losartan. Treatment with FRG was significantly suppressed the increments of body weight, liver weight, epididymal fat weight and adipocyte size. Moreover, FRG significantly prevented the development of the metabolic disturbances such as hyperlipidemia and hypertension. Staining with Oil‐red‐o demonstrated marked increase of hepatic accumulation of triglycerides, and this increases was prevented by FRG. FRG ameliorated endothelial dysfunction by down‐regulation of endothelin‐1 (ET‐1) and adhesion molecules in the aorta. In addition, FRG induced markedly up‐regulation of IRS‐1 and Glut4 in the muscle. These results indicate that FRG ameliorates obesity, dyslipidemia, hypertension and fatty liver in HF diet rats. Thus the pharmacological activity of RG was enhanced by fermentation on HF diet induced metabolic disorders. Taken together, fermentated red geinseng might be a beneficial therapeutic approach for metabolic syndrome.

Insulin sensitivity improvement of fermented Korean Red Ginseng (Panax ginseng) mediated by insulin resistance hallmarks in old-aged ob/ob mice

BackgroundThe biological actions of various ginseng extracts have been studied for treating obesity and diabetes mellitus. However, few studies have evaluated the effects of fermented Korean Red Ginseng (Panax ginseng Meyer) on metabolic syndrome. The present study evaluated the antiobesity and antidiabetic effects of fermented red ginseng (FRG) on old-aged, obese, leptin-deficient (B6.V-Lepob, “ob/ob”) mice. MethodsThe animals were divided into three groups and given water containing 0%, 0.5%, and 1.0% FRG for 16 wk. The effect of FRG on ob/ob mice was determined by measuring changes in body weight, levels of blood glucose, serum contents of triglycerides, total cholesterol and free fatty acids, messenger RNA (mRNA) expressions of key factors associated with insulin action, such as insulin receptor (IR), lipoprotein lipase (LPL), glucose transporter 1 and 4 (GLUT1 and GLUT4), peroxisome proliferators-activated receptor gamma (PPAR-γ), and phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase (PEPCK) in the liver and in muscle, and histology of the liver and pancreas. ResultsFRG-treated mice had decreased body weight and blood glucose levels compared with control ob/ob mice. However, anti-obesity effect of FRG was not evident rather than hypoglycemic effect in old aged ob/ob mice. The hyperlipidemia in control group was attenuated in FRG-treated ob/ob mice. The mRNA expressions of IR, LPL, GLUT1, GLUT4, PPAR-γ, and PEPCK in the liver and in muscle were increased in the FRG-treated groups compared with the control group. ConclusionThese results suggest that FRG may play a vital role in improving insulin sensitivity relative to reducing body weight in old-aged ob/ob mice.

Postprandial glucose-lowering effects of fermented red ginseng in subjects with impaired fasting glucose or type 2 diabetes: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical trial.

BackgroundRed ginseng is prepared by steaming raw ginseng, a process believed to increase the pharmacological efficacy. Further bioconversion of red ginseng through fermentation is known to increase its intestinal absorption and bioactivity, and bioconversion diminishes the toxicity of red ginseng’s metabolite. This study was conducted to investigate the effects of daily supplementation with fermented red ginseng (FRG) on glycemic status in subjects with impaired fasting glucose or type 2 diabetes.MethodsThis study was a four-week long, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Forty-two subjects with impaired fasting glucose or type 2 diabetes were randomly allocated to two groups assigned to consume either the placebo or fermented red ginseng (FRG) three times per day for four weeks. Fasting and postprandial glucose profiles during meal tolerance tests were assessed before and after the intervention.ResultsFRG supplementation led to a significant reduction in postprandial glucose levels and led to an increase in postprandial insulin levels compared to the placebo group. There was a consistently significant improvement in the glucose area under the curve (AUC) in the FRG group. However, fasting glucose, insulin, and lipid profiles were not different from the placebo group.ConclusionDaily supplementation with FRG lowered postprandial glucose levels in subjects with impaired fasting glucose or type 2 diabetes.Trial registrationClinicalTrials.gov: NCT01826409

Morphological Studies on the Inhibitory Effects of Photoaging Skin of Fermented Red Ginseng in Hairless Mice

To investigate the anti-photoaging effect of fermented Red Ginseng(RG) in SKH-1 mice. We examined the effects of extracts of non-fermented RG(NRG group), fermented RG(FRG group) and fortified fermented RG(FFRG group) on skin wrinkles formation, histological changes related to the number of epidermal cell layers, epidermal thickness, neutrophil infiltration into dermis, degradation of collagen fibers, and the number of mast cells, and immunohistochemical changes related to cytokines and enzymes in photoaging skin caused by UVB irradiation of SKH-1 mice. The oral administration(300 ㎎/㎏ B.W./day) and topical application(100 ㎕/mouse/day) of extracts of NRG, FRG and FFRG inhibited increases in epidermal thickness and wrinkle formation compared to control group in dorsal skin induced by UVB irradiation. We observed more increased stainability of acid fuschin and aniline blue in dermis of FFRG group than those of other groups. Furthermore, NRG, FRG and FFRG prevented the disruption of collagen fibers within papillary layer of dermis, and decreased number of mast cells in the dorsal skins induced by UVB irradiation. We observed fine wrinkle formation in FFRG group. Treatment with NRG, FRG and FFRG decreased immunohistochemical density of myeloperoxidase related to inflammation in the photoaging skin. We observed more decreased immunohistochemical density of myeloperoxidase in FFRG group than those of other groups. Immunohistochemical density of PCNA and Ki-67 in FFRG group was more decreased than those of other groups. Our study suggests that fermented red ginseng extracts participates in inhibitory effects in the morphological processes related to photoaging skin on UVB irradiated SKH-1 mice.

Immunostimulatory effect of fermented red ginseng in the mouse model.

In this study, Woongjin fermented red ginseng extract (WFRG) was evaluated for its potential ability to act as an adjuvant for the immune response of mice. For the in vitro study, macrophages were treated with serial concentrations (1 μg/mL, 10 μg/mL, and 100 μg/mL) of WFRG. For in vivo studies, mice were administered different concentrations (10 mg/kg/day, 100 mg/kg/day, and 200 mg/kg/day) of WFRG orally for 21 days. In vitro, the production of nitric oxide and TNF-α by RAW 264.7 cells increased in a dose-dependent manner. In vivo, WFRG enhanced the proliferation of splenocytes induced by two mitogens (i.e., concanavalin A and lipopolysaccharide [LPS]) and increased LPS-induced production of TNF-α and IL-6, but not IL-1β. In conclusion, WFRG has the potential to modulate immune function and should be further investigated as an immunostimulatory agent.

Free-fatty-acid-regulating effects of fermented red ginseng are mediated by hormones and by the autonomic nervous system

BackgroundUnderstanding what causes changes in the flux of free fatty acids (FFA) is important to elucidate the etiology of metabolic syndrome. The first aim of this study was to test whether or not hormones and the autonomic nervous system influence blood FFA levels. A secondary aim was to test by means of a multiple group path analysis whether the consumption of fermented red ginseng (FRG; Panax ginseng) would influence those causal relationships. MethodsNinety-three postmenopausal women (age 50–73 yr) were randomly divided into two groups. One group (44 women; age, 58.4 ± 5.9 yr; body mass index, 23.6 ± 2.5 kg/m2) was supplied placebo capsules and the other group (49 women, age 58.4 ± 5.5 yr; body mass index, 22.9 ± 2.4 kg/m2) was supplied FRG capsules. Both prior to and after the study (2 wk), blood samples were collected from the participants and several blood variables were measured and analyzed. ResultsSquared multiple correlations of FFA were 0.699 in the placebo group and 0.707 in the FRG group. The unstandardized estimate of estradiol (E2) for FFA was 0.824 in both groups. ConclusionThe path coefficients of cortisol and the branchial pulse for FFA were significantly different between the FRG group and the placebo group.

The effect of fermented red ginseng on depression is mediated by lipids

ObjectivesThe cortico-limbic hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis has emerged as an important area for the cause and treatment of depression. The primary aim of this study was to test the hypothesis that hormones, energy sources, and minerals have a causal relationship with depression. The secondary aim was to test whether consumption of fermented red ginseng (FRG) would influence that causal relationship.MethodsFor this study, 93 postmenopausal women were randomly divided into two groups. One group (49 women) was supplied with FRG capsules, and the other group (44 women) with placebo capsules, for 2 weeks. Both before and after the study, the participants filled out the Beck depression inventory questionnaire, and then blood samples were collected. The structural regression model was established. The causative latent variables were hormone (adrenocorticotropic hormone and cortisol), energy (low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol, total cholesterol, and blood glucose), mineral 1 (potassium, sodium, chloride, and iron), and mineral 2 (magnesium, calcium), and the resultant latent variables were cognitive depression (CD) and somatic depression. The goodness-of-fit statistics of the final model were good (root mean square error of approximation =0.033, comparative fit index =0.877, and Tucker–Lewis index =0.870).ResultsThe structural regression path of the energy factor on CD showed a significant difference between the FRG group (0.259) and the placebo group (−0.201). The factor loadings of total cholesterol (1.236) and LDL cholesterol (1.000) on the energy factor were much higher than that of glucose (0.166).ConclusionBased on the analysis used in this model, the effect of FRG consumption on CD occurred via the energy factor, which is mainly attributable to cholesterol.

The Anti‐Obesity Effects of the Dietary Combination of Fermented Red Ginseng with Levan in High Fat Diet Mouse Model

In this study, to evaluate the anti-obesity effects of fermented red ginseng (FG), levan (L), and their combination (FGL), we investigated their effects on the weights of body, liver and white adipose tissue, lipid profiles, and biomarkers for insulin resistance in high fat diet (HFD)-induced obese C57BL/6J male mice. Furthermore, the levels of leptin in the serum were measured. FG (150 mg/kg/d), L (100 mg/kg/d), and FGL (150 mg/kg/d of FG plus 100 mg/kg/d of L) were administered orally to mice daily for 11 weeks. After 11 weeks feeding, FGL showed significantly lower body weight and fat mass with decreasing food efficiency ratio than the HFD control mice. In addition, the FGL group was significantly lower in the levels of total cholesterol and fasting blood glucose and score of the homeostatic model assessment of insulin resistance. Furthermore, FGL decreased serum leptin levels compared to the HFD control group. Taken together, FGL showed a significant anti-obesity effect in HFD-induced obese mice and prevent insulin and leptin resistance. FGL may be potentially useful for the prevention of obesity.

Diabetes-Ameliorating Effects of Fermented Red Ginseng and Causal Effects on Hormonal Interactions: Testing the Hypothesis by Multiple Group Path Analysis

Although diagnostic criteria for metabolic syndrome (MtS) vary among various health professionals and organizations, blood glucose dysregulation and insulin resistance are common to all definitions. Red ginseng is beneficial for glucose regulation and insulin sensitivity but the mechanism is not yet elucidated. Ginsenosides Rh1 and Rg3 act as ligands of the estrogen receptor, and Rh2 and compound K act as ligands of the glucocorticoid receptors, which may influence the diabetes markers. The objective of this study was to test the hypothesis that there are significant causal relationships among diabetes-related markers and several hormones, and assess whether or not the consumption of fermented red ginseng (FRG) influences these causal relationships by multiple group path analysis and conventional statistical analyses. The 93 postmenopausal women were randomly divided into two groups for a double-blind trial. FRG powder and placebo were provided for 2 weeks. The data were analyzed by multiple group path analysis and the mean between groups were compared. The model's goodness of fit was excellent, with a root mean square error of approximation of 0.00, and comparative fit index of 1.00. The FRG group exhibited significantly increased levels of dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate (DHEAS), growth hormone (GH), and estradiol (E2), and they exhibited decreased levels of glycosylated hemoglobin (HbA1c), insulin, and homeostatic model assessment of insulin resistance. With regard to the hypothesis, the blood glucose lowering effects of FRG were due to the negative effects of aldosterone and increased GH, which was associated with DHEAS and E2. Even though the differences of variables between both groups were small, the total effects of these variables may indicate beneficial changes for the prevention of diabetes in healthy postmenopausal women.

Effects of Fermented Red Ginseng Supplementation on Growth Performance, Apparent Nutrient Digestibility, Blood Hematology and Meat Quality in Finishing Pigs

This study was conducted to evaluate the effects of fermented red ginseng (FRG) on growth performance, apparent nutrient digestibility, blood hematology and meat quality in finishing pigs. A total of 96 ((LandraceYorkshire)Duroc) pigs () were randomly allocated into one of the following dietary treatments: i) CON, basal diet; ii) FRG1, basal diet+1 g/kg fermented red ginseng; iii) FRG2, basal diet+2 g/kg fermented red ginseng and iv) FRG3 basal diet+4 g/kg fermented red ginseng. There were 6 replications per treatment with 4 pigs (2 gilts and 2 barrows) per pen. Throughout the whole period of the trial, there were no effects of FRG addition on ADG or G/F. Pigs fed FRG2 diet had lower ADFI (p

Therapeutic Effects of Fermented Red Ginseng in Allergic Rhinitis: A Randomized, Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled Study

PurposeAllergic rhinitis is clinically defined as a disorder of the nose induced by IgE mediated inflammation after allergen exposure of the nasal mucosa. Many reports have stated that Panax ginseng and fermented red ginseng have anti-inflammatory effects, especially against Th2-type inflammation. This study was conducted to evaluate the therapeutic effects of fermented red ginseng in allergic rhinitis.MethodsIn this 4-week, double-blind, placebo-controlled study, 59 patients with persistent perennial allergic rhinitis were randomly divided into two groups: those receiving fermented red ginseng tablets (experimental group) and those receiving placebo (control group). The primary efficacy variable was the total nasal symptom score (TNSS; rhinorrhea, sneezing, itchy nose, and nasal congestion). Secondary efficacy variables were the Rhinitis Quality of Life (RQoL) score and skin reactivity to inhalant allergens, as determined by the skin prick test.ResultsThere was no significant difference in the TNSS score and TNSS duration score between the experimental and placebo groups in weeks 1, 2, 3, or 4. For nasal congestion, fermented red ginseng was significantly effective (P<0.005), while placebo caused no change. The activity and emotion of RQoL improved markedly secondary to treatment with fermented red ginseng (P<0.05), while placebo caused no change. Additionally, fermented red ginseng reduced skin reactivity to sensitized perennial allergens (P<0.05). Fermented red ginseng was well tolerated.ConclusionsFermented red ginseng improved nasal congestion symptoms and RQoL in patients with perennial allergic rhinitis.

The anti-inflammmatory effect of fermented red ginseng in experimental colitic mice

Here we fermented red ginseng (RG, the steamed root of Panax ginseng CA Meyer, Araliaceae) by Bifidobacterium longum H-1 and and investigated whether Bifidus fermentation could increase its anticolitic effect in 2,4,6-trinitrobenzenesulfonic acid- and dextran sulphate sodium (DSS)-induced colitic mice. The colitic mice had shortened colons, decreased body weight, and high myeloperoxidase activity, and administration of RG and fermented RG (FRG) significantly inhibited these changes. These agents also repressed expression of the pro-inflammatory cytokines, IL-1β, TNF-α, and cyclooxygenase (COX)-2, as well as the DSS-induced activation of NF-κB, with FRG more potently inhibiting the colitic markers than RG. The administration of RG and FRG also significantly reduced the activities of intestinal bacterial β-glucuronidase and chondroitin sulphate degradation activities, induced by a colitic inducer. These findings suggest that RG and FRG might improve colitis by regulating inflammatory cytokine expression via NF-κB activation, and that the anticolitic effects of RG can be improved by Bifidus fermentation.

Inhibitory Effect of Fermented Red Ginseng against Passive Cutaneous Anaphylaxis Reaction and Scratching behaviors in Mice

To evaluate the antiatopic effect of Korea red ginseng (RG, steamed root of Panax ginseng CA Meyer, Family Araliaceae) fermented by Bifidobacterium longum H-1 (FRG), its inhibitory effect on passive cutaneous anaphylaxis (PCA) reaction and itching in mice was measured. FRG and its ingredient saponin fraction (FSF) potently inhibited PCA reaction and scratching behaviors. FRG at a dose of 200 mg/kg and FSF at a dose of 50 mg/kg significantly inhibited the scratching frequency by 45% and 47%, respectively. FRG and FSF also inhibited the degranulation and protein expression of tumor-necrosis <TEX>$factor-{\alpha}$</TEX> and interleukin-4 of RBL-2H3 cells induced by IgE-complex. However, polysaccharide fraction of FRG (FPF) weakly inhibited it, compared with FSF. The inhibitory effect of FRG against PCA reaction and scratching behaviors more potently inhibited than that of RG. Based on these findings, FRG can improve allergic skin disorders atopic dermatitis by the regulation of <TEX>$TNF-{\alpha}$</TEX>, and IL-4 produced by mast cells and basophils and its degranulation.