Effect Of Body Weight Change Research Articles

243 Effects of body weight change in pre-production Duroc boars on semen collection training, semen production parameters, and longevity in a commercial boar stud

Abstract Our objective was to assess the effects of percentage body weight (BW) change in developing Duroc boars on semen collection training, semen production parameters, and longevity in a commercial boar stud. Retrospectively, 164 boars were divided into one of three groups based on their percentage BW change from arrival to the boar stud until the end of the 42-d isolation period. The one-third of boars that had the greatest percentage of BW change during the isolation period gained 36.1% to 10.1% (TOP). The middle one-third of boars that were intermediate in percentage BW change during isolation gained 9.7% to 2.6% (MIDDLE). The final group consisted of one-third of boars that either minimally gained or lost BW (2.5% to -9.5% change in BW; BOTTOM). During the isolation period boars in the TOP group lost the least amount of backfat (indicated by ultrasound or caliper score; P < 0.05), while boars in the BOTTOM group lost the most backfat. Average boar age at the time of successfully becoming a working boar (successfully mounting the collection dummy and producing an ejaculate with a motility ≥ 70% and percent normal morphology ≥ 65%) and the proportion of boars that were successful at become working boars did not differ between groups (P > 0.05). Among working boars, the concentration of sperm in ejaculates tended to differ (P = 0.0740) between groups (Table). Boars in the TOP group had a greater percentage of sperm with normal morphology (P = 0.0337) than boars in the BOTTOM group. There was a group by production week interaction (P < 0.0001) for semen ejaculate volume, total number of sperm, and total number of sperm with normal morphology. Boars in the TOP and MIDDLE groups produced more total sperm and normal sperm than the BOTTOM group from wk 8 to 20 of being working boars, resulting in production of considerably more doses for artificial insemination. During their time as working boars, removal from the stud by cull or death was not different between groups (P >0.05). There was also no difference (P > 0.05) between groups on the average week of removal from the stud, with each group having boars most frequently removed at wk 22 of production. While percentage BW change during isolation did not affect semen collection training and longevity in the stud, the increase in production of total normal sperm in the TOP and MIDDLE groups compared with the BOTTOM group could have substantial economic benefits for boar stud. Our study suggests that managing boars individually to ensure they stay in a positive metabolic state is ideal for optimal semen production at a boar stud.

Impact of weight loss after treatment on survival outcomes of overweight and obese patients with early‑stage endometrial cancer.

Despite the fact that obesity is the main risk factor for endometrial cancer, there is limited evidence regarding the effects of body weight change on overweight and obese women treated for early-stage endometrial can its impact on cancer outcomes. A retrospective cohort study was performed including all overweight and obese patients with early-stage type-I endometrial cancer that were treated at the Insular University Hospital of Las Palmas (Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Spain) between January 2007 and December 2019. Body weight change at 12 months of treatment was evaluated, as well as its impact on cancer outcomes. Weight loss ≥5% was independently evaluated regarding its impact on survival. A total of 526 women were studied, of which 152 (28.90%) were overweight (BMI ≥25 and <30) and 374 (71.10%) were obese (BMI ≥30). The median follow-up was 76.17 months, during which time 77 (14.64%) women died. In the survivor group, body weight at initial diagnosis was 86.4±17.9 kg compared with 84.6±16.4 kg 1 year after treatment, which corresponded to a significant mean weight loss of 1.47 kg (P<0.001). However, in the group of non-survivors, body weight at initial diagnosis was 84.7±15.7 kg compared with 84.7±14.6 kg 1 year after treatment, which demonstrated a non-significant mean weight loss of 0.63 kg (P=0.180). When comparing between the patients who maintained or gained ≥5% weight and those who lost ≥5% weight, there were no significant differences taking into account the whole cohort and follow-up time; however, when adjusting for the period between 32 and 98 months, survival was significantly higher in those patients that lost ≥5% of their initial body weight (P=0.025; log-rank test). Based on the final univariate and cer and multivariate analyses, body weight change at 12 months was not indicated to be a factor significantly affecting overall survival; adjusted hazard ratio was 1.01 (95% CI 0.97-1.05, P=0.723). In conclusion, even if greater weight loss is observed in patients with endometrial cancer that survive the disease, no significant impact on survival outcomes is observed based on multivariate analysis.

Associations of Recreational and Nonrecreational Physical Activity and Body Weight Change on Cardiovascular Disease Mortality During the Obesogenic Transition in the United States: National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey Follow-up Study.

To investigate cardiovascular disease mortality associated with longitudinal changes in body weight, and recreational and nonrecreational physical activity during the obesogenic transition in the United States since the 1970s. Data were analyzed from 4921 individuals aged 25-74years who participated in the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey between 1971 and 1979 and follow-up studies to 1992. Mortality was confirmed by searching the National Death Index or proxy interview; clinical data were collected in person. Changes in self-reported recreational and nonrecreational physical activity categories over time were coded as stable, increase, or decrease. Competing risks regression was used to determine hazard ratios adjusted for covariates. A logit model in a generalization method was used to explore mediation effects of change in body weight. Compared with the "moderate-vigorous stable" group (reference), individuals who remained inactive ("inactive stable") or reduced their participation in physical activity ("active to inactive") experienced the highest mortality, with a 50% to 176% and 22% to 222% relative increased hazard ratios for nonrecreational and recreational physical activity, respectively, across all models adjusted for covariates. This corresponded to significant loss of life (up to 3y; all P < .05). Individuals who became active ("inactive to active") were not at increased risk. We found weak (but nonstatistically significant) evidence of mediation effects of body weight change on mortality. Longitudinal changes in moderate-vigorous recreational and nonrecreational physical activity were important predictors of cardiovascular disease mortality during the obesogenic transition period in the United States and were mostly unexplained by changes in body weight.

The risk of colorectal cancer according to obesity status at four-year intervals: a nationwide population-based cohort study

Obesity is a risk factor for colorectal cancer. However, the effect of body weight change on colorectal cancer is uncertain. This study aimed to investigate the relationship between difference in body mass index and the risk of colorectal cancer. In this nationwide population-based cohort study, participants of the national cancer screening program in 2005 and 2009 were enrolled. Difference of body mass index was calculated from screening data from 2005 and 2009. Participants were divided into four groups according to direction of obesity status: non-obese/non-obese, non-obese/obese, obese/non-obese, and obese/obese. The effect of differences in body mass index on colorectal cancer was analyzed. Among 3,858,228 participants, 47,894 (1.24%) participants were newly diagnosed with colorectal cancer during the 9.2 years of follow-up. The incidence of colorectal cancer was higher in the obese/obese group than the non-obese/non-obese group (hazard ratio = 1.08 [1.06–1.11], P trend < 0.001). The men in the obese/obese group had a higher risk of colon cancer than women (hazard ratio = 1.13 [1.10–1.17] in men, and hazard ratio = 1.04 [1.01–1.18] in women, P = 0.001). Persistent obesity was associated with a higher risk of incidence of colorectal cancer.

OC-0124 Effect of Body Weight Changes on Thecal Sac Dose in Spine SBRT

OC-0124 Effect of Body Weight Changes on Thecal Sac Dose in Spine SBRT

Effects of Body Weight Change on Development of Chronic Kidney Disease in Obese Metabolic Phenotypes

Introduction: Obesity is a risk factor for chronic kidney disease (CKD), but whether the reduction of body mass index (BMI) helps prevent CKD is controversial. Recently, obese metabolic phenotypes have raised considerable interest. We thus investigated the effect of BMI change on CKD development. Methods: We analyzed the data of 6,959 subjects who underwent annual health checkups in both 2013 and 2018. The subjects were categorized into five groups according to their BMI percentage change (ΔBMI) and classified into four obese metabolic phenotypes. By a multivariate logistic regression analysis, we investigated the association between BMI change and CKD development within the 5 years. Results: In total subjects, compared with the maintained BMI group (ΔBMI ≥0% but <2.5%), the odd ratios (ORs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) of CKD development were 0.70 (95% CI 0.54–0.91) for the severe BMI decrease group (ΔBMI <−2.5%), and 1.40 (95% CI 1.08–1.81) for the severe BMI increase group (ΔBMI ≥5%). In the metabolically healthy obese (MHO) phenotype, the risks of CKD development were significantly higher in the moderate BMI increase group (ΔBMI ≥2.5% but <5%) (OR 3.04, 95% CI 1.19–7.78) and a severe BMI increase group (OR 2.88, 95% CI 1.13–7.35). Regarding the metabolically unhealthy nonobese (MUNO) phenotype, the risks of CKD development were significantly lower in the severe BMI decrease group (OR 0.43, 95% CI 0.25–0.74) and the moderate BMI decrease group (ΔBMI ≥−2.5% but <0%) (OR 0.58, 95% CI 0.35–0.98). Conclusions: In the MHO phenotype, an increased BMI deteriorated CKD development, and a decreased BMI ameliorated CKD development in the MUNO phenotype.

Effect of Body Weight Change on Blood Pressure in a Japanese General Population with a Body Mass Index ≥ 22 kg/m2.

The association between changes in body weight and blood pressure (BP) in overweight people in the general population still remains unclear. We sought to clarify the effect of body weight change on BP using a community-based cohort. We studied 1,170 overweight subjects with a body mass index (BMI) ≥ 22 kg/m2 who underwent health check-ups. Among the study subjects, 175 (15%) were categorized in the weight loss group (weight loss ≥ 5%), 869 (74%) in the weight stable group, and 126 (11%) in the weight gain group (weight gain ≥ 5%). There were no significant differences in baseline BP between the 3 groups. In the weight loss group, systolic and diastolic BP, and the rates of stage 2 (systolic BP ≥ 140 mmHg or diastolic BP ≥ 90 mmHg) and stage 1 hypertension (130 mmHg≤ systolic BP < 140 mmHg or 80 mmHg≤ diastolic BP < 90 mmHg) decreased. In contrast, in the weight gain group, systolic and diastolic BP and the rate of stage 2 hypertension increased. Subgroup analysis showed that the correlation between change in body weight and BP was seen in each subgroup according to age, sex, and BMI. The results of the present study suggest the significance of body weight control for BP control in subjects with BMI ≥ 22 kg/m2.

Effects of body weight variation in obese kidney recipients: a retrospective cohort study.

BackgroundObese kidney allograft recipients have worse results in kidney transplantation (KT). However, there is lack of information regarding the effect of body mass index (BMI) variation after KT. The objective of the study was to evaluate the effects of body weight changes in obese kidney transplant recipients.MethodsIn this study we used data from the Catalan Renal Registry that included KT recipients from 1990 to 2011 (n = 5607). The annual change in post-transplantation BMI was calculated. The main outcome variables were delayed graft function (DGF), estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) and patient and graft survival.ResultsObesity was observed in 609 patients (10.9%) at the time of transplantation. The incidence of DGF was significantly higher in obese patients (40.4% versus 28.3%; P < 0.001). Baseline obesity was significantly associated with worse short- and long-term graft survival (P < 0.05) and worse graft function during the follow-up (P < 0.005). BMI variations in obese patients did not improve eGFR or graft or patient survival.ConclusionsOur conclusion is that in obese patients, decreasing body weight after KT does not improve either short-term graft outcomes or long-term renal function.

Effect of Body Weight Changes on Hypertension in Indonesian Adults (A 14-Year Follow Up)

Background: Obesity is one of the major risk factors of hypertension. There is no large cohort study designed to investigate the quantitative asso­ciation between body weight changes and the risk of hypertension in Indonesia. The aim of this study was to determine the impact of longitudinal BMI changes on hypertension in Indonesian adults. Methods: Body Mass Index (BMI) was computed by dividing weight (kg) by height squared (m2). Based on the BMI at baseline, the participants formed four weight-change groups: normal weight-maintainers, weight-gainers, weight-losers and overweight or obese-maintainers. The effect of age on the relationship between body weight changes and hypertension was analyzed by logistic regression models using stratified analysis. Results: Four body weight changes were identified: normal weight-maintainers (41.95%), weight-gainers (18.83%), weight-losers (5.24%), and overweight or obese-maintainers (33.98%). The stratified logistic regression analysis showed that changes in the relationships between the BMI changes and hypertension with age generally tended to be positive in the younger age-based subgroups but negative in the older subgroups. Relative to the normal weight-maintainers, the weight-gainers had the highest likelihood of hypertension (OR=1.68 95%CI [1.23-1.93]). Conclusions: The findings of the study underline the importance of maintaining normal weight for preventing hypertension especially for the middle-aged.

The Effect of Body Weight Changes on Total Plasma Clozapine Concentrations Determined by Applying a Statistical Model to the Data From a Double-Blind Trial

Some therapeutic drug monitoring studies suggest that increased weight is associated with small increases in clozapine concentrations. The goal of this study was to reanalyze a US double-blind study using a sophisticated statistical model to test whether weight gains from baseline or increases in percentage of body fat from baseline, computed from a published equation, are associated with increased total plasma clozapine concentrations after controlling for the effects of smoking and sex. Using data from a multidosage randomized double-blind US clozapine trial previously published, a random intercept linear model of steady-state total plasma clozapine concentrations was fitted to 424 concentrations from 47 patients. After adjusting for sex and smoking, (1) a 1-kg gain in body weight during clozapine treatment was significantly associated with a 1.4% increase in total plasma clozapine concentrations (95% confidence interval = 0.55 to 2.3) and (2) a 1-point increase in percentage of body fat during clozapine treatment was significantly associated with a 5.4% increase in total clozapine concentration (2.5 to 8.3) in females and 1.4% (-1.1 to 4.0) in males. As hypothesized, weight increases during clozapine treatment, which probably reflect increases in fat tissue, were associated with increases in total plasma concentrations. Pending further replication in other samples, it seems likely that clozapine may deposit in body fat and that this may decrease clozapine clearance. This change may be small in most patients but may be clinically relevant in females with major gains in body fat.

Weight loss in the healthy elderly might be a non-cognitive sign of preclinical Alzheimer's disease.

Weight loss has been proposed as a sign of pre-clinical Alzheimer Disease (AD). To test this hypothesis, we have evaluated the association between longitudinal changes in weight trajectories, cognitive performance, AD biomarker profiles and brain structure in 363 healthy controls from the Alzheimer´s Disease Neuroimaging Initiative (mean follow-up 50.5±30.5 months). Subjects were classified according to body weight trajectory into a weight loss group (WLG; relative weight loss ≥ 5%) and a non-weight loss group (non-WLG; relative weight loss < 5%). Linear mixed effects models were used to estimate the effect of body weight changes on ADAS-Cognitive score across time. Baseline CSF tau/AΔ42 ratio and AV45 PET uptake were compared between WLG and non-WLG by analysis of covariance. Atrophy maps were compared between groups at baseline and longitudinally at a 2-year follow-up using Freesurfer. WLG showed increased baseline levels of cerebrospinal fluid tau/AΔ42 ratio, increased PET amyloid uptake and diminished cortical thickness at baseline. WLG also showed faster cognitive decline and faster longitudinal atrophy. Our data support weight loss as a non-cognitive manifestation of pre-clinical AD.

Effect of body weight on spinal loads in various activities: A personalized biomechanical modeling approach

Epidemiological studies are divided over the causative role of body weight (BW) in low back pain. Biomechanical modeling is a valuable approach to examine the effect of changes in BW on spinal loads and risk of back pain. Changes in BW have not been properly simulated by previous models as associated alterations in model inputs on the musculature and moment arm of gravity loads have been neglected. A detailed, multi-joint, scalable model of the thoracolumbar spine is used to study the effect of BW (varying at five levels, i.e., 51, 68, 85, 102, and 119kg) on the L5–S1 spinal loads during various static symmetric activities while scaling moment arms and physiological cross-sectional areas of muscles using in vivo imaging data. The L5–S1 loads substantially increased with BW especially in flexed postures. As BW increased from 51 to 119kg, the L5-S1 compression increased in flexed postures by ~80–147% with no load in hands and by ~46–52% in load holding tasks. In obese individuals with body mass index>30kg/m2 spinal loads further increased by up to 15% as lever arms for gravity loading at the waistline (T12 through L5) increased by 2cm (for BW=102kg) and 4cm (for BW=119kg). With changes in BW, spinal loads would have moderately altered (<17%) had identical muscle parameters been considered. Since scaling muscle parameters demands additional efforts in modeling, one could opt for simulation of alterations only in BW while using some averaged musculature values.

EFFECT OF BODY WEIGHT CHANGES ON THE FORMATION OF COTTON PELLET-INDUCED GRANULOMA.

Abstract Cotton pellet-induced granuloma formation in intact animals is intimately dependent upon body growth and general anabolic processes. Deposition of connective tissue around the pellet continues up to (and probably beyond) the observation period of 90 days after implantation. Anorexic or catabolic agents, or both, or restricted food intake markedly impairs granuloma formation as a result of an impaired body growth. By expressing the amount of granuloma formed in mg/100 g body weight, the true anti-granulomatous properties of a drug can be easily dissociated from those attributable to an impaired body growth. The mechanism by which impairment in body growth affects granuloma formation is discussed.

Hypoadiponectinemia

Hypertension is a public health challenge of increasing importance because of its high frequency and concomitant risk of cardiovascular and renal disease. It has been estimated that the worldwide prevalence of hypertension was 972 million in 2000, and this number will increase by 60% by the year 2025.1 A large body of evidence indicates that the increasing prevalence of hypertension is sustained by the escalation of overweight and obesity. Actually, most hypertensive patients are also overweight or obese,2 and this may contribute to further deteriorate their cardiovascular risk profile. Similar to hypertension, obesity is independently associated with numerous adverse cardiovascular outcomes, and, most importantly, adipose tissue expansion and hypertension have a synergistic negative impact on cardiovascular prognosis. Hence, the hypertension–obesity pandemic imposes today a considerable burden on societies and healthcare systems that one can reasonably expect to increase further in the next years. The importance of preventing hypertension underscores the critical role of a better understanding of the most common mechanisms underlying its development. The association between obesity and hypertension has been recognized for many decades,2 and an almost linear relation appears between body mass index and systolic and diastolic blood pressures, at least over a body mass index range from 16 to 31 kg/m2.3 Also, risk estimates from the Framingham Heart Study suggest that ≈78% of the hypertension cases in men and 65% in women can be directly attributed to obesity.4 Further evidence for a consistent link between adiposity and hypertension comes from studies showing that weight gain is almost invariably associated with an increase in blood pressure. The increase in blood pressure is closely related to the magnitude of weight gain, and even moderate weight gain is associated with an increased risk of developing hypertension.5 In addition, even modest weight …

Obesity in Infancy: Questions, More Questions, and Few Answers

Current literature presents conflicting views about the existence of infant obesity and its role as a risk factor for later life obesity and comorbidity. This article reviews extant literature and addresses the issues raised about obesity and overweight status in the first 2 years of life. The epidemic increase in childhood obesity stimulates questions about the effects of body weight changes during infancy upon future health status. The influence of maternal obesity and family inheritance patterns is a significant risk for childhood obesity, yet the picture is unclear for birthweight, infant weight gain, and growth parameters in the earliest years of life. Prevention, management, and treatment are indicated when families present with obesity patterns among their members.

1027-198 The effect of body weight change on arterial wall properties

1027-198 The effect of body weight change on arterial wall properties

Effect of body weight changes on 24-hour blood pressure and left ventricular mass in hypertension: a 4-year follow-up

Background Few data are available on the long-term effects of weight loss on 24-h blood pressure (BP) and left ventricular mass in overweight hypertensive patients. Methods A total of 181 never-treated overweight hypertensive subjects (body mass index, 25 to 39 kg/m 2, office BP 145/94 ± 12/7 mm Hg) had 24-h BP monitoring and echocardiography twice, at baseline and after 3.8 ± 2 years (minimum 1 year). None of the subjects received antihypertensive drugs during the follow-up. Main outcome measures were changes in 24-h BP and in left ventricular mass. Results Percent change in body weight had a direct relationship with 24-h BP changes ( r = 0.35 and 0.31 for systolic and diastolic BP, respectively; both P < .001). The associations with office BP changes ( r = 0.13, P = .10 for systolic BP; r = 0.15, P = .06 for diastolic BP) were significantly weaker (both P < .01, z test). The patients who lost weight during follow-up ( n = 106) had a significantly lower increase in 24-h BP (+0.6 ± 9/ +0.2 ± 6 v +4.9 ± 9/ +2.7 ± 7 mm Hg for systolic/diastolic BP, both P < .01) and in left ventricular mass (−3 ± 30 g v +9 ± 32 g, P < .02) than the remaining subjects. In a multiple linear regression, a 10% weight loss independently predicted a 4.3/3.8 mm Hg decrease in 24-h systolic/diastolic BP. Conclusions Long-term weight loss determines a sustained BP reduction during the 24 h and a decrease in left ventricular mass in overweight hypertensive subjects. The relation of weight loss with ambulatory BP changes is closer than that with office BP.

Dose-response trend tests for tumorigenesis adjusted for differences in survival and body weight across doses.

A relationship between rodent body weight and tumor incidence for some tissue/organ sites has been demonstrated in many studies. It is not uncommon for a chemical tested for carcinogenicity to also affect body weight due to toxicity and/or food consumption. In such cases, comparisons of tumor incidence may be biased by body weight differences across dose groups. A simple procedure was investigated for reducing this bias. This procedure divides the animals into a few groups on the basis of body weight. Body weight at 12 months was used, before the appearance of a tumor was likely to affect body weight. Statistics for dose-response trend tests are calculated within body weight strata and pooled to obtain an overall dose-response trend test. This procedure is analogous to stratifying animals on the basis of age at the time of removal from a study to account for differences in ages of animals across dose groups that can affect comparisons of tumor incidence. In this paper, differences in survival times of animals were adjusted by the Poly-3 technique used by the National Toxicology Program. This technique does not require the assignment of cause of death. Several examples from rodent chronic bioassays were investigated, where the high dose group had reduced body weights and associated reductions in tumor incidence. When we analyzed the data by body weight strata, some positive dose-response trends for tumor incidence were demonstrated. In one case, the body weight adjusted analysis indicated that a negative dose-response trend in tumor incidence was a real effect in addition to a body weight reduction. These examples indicate that it is important to consider the effects of body weight changes as low as 10%, and perhaps less, as possibly being caused by chemicals in 2-year bioassays for carcinogenesis. The simple procedure of analyzing tumor incidence within body weight strata can reduce the bias introduced by body weight differences across dose groups.

Relation of body weight change to changes in atherogenic traits; a study of middle-aged Japanese obese male office workers.

We examined the effect of body weight change on the modification of atherogenic risk factors in 296 middle-aged obese male office workers without medication for hypertension, dyslipidemia, hyperuricemia or diabetes mellitus. During a 1-year education program, 39.2% of the participants could reduce their weight, and the percentage of those who lost 2 kg or more was only 17.7%. Concomitant with the decrease of weight, however, the levels of systolic and diastolic blood pressures, total cholesterol, triglyceride, uric acid and hemoglobin A1c and the ratio of total cholesterol to high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol decreased significantly, whereas the HDL cholesterol level increased significantly. In a multivariate regression analysis, in addition to the initial risk-factor level, weight change was an important factor determining the changes in atherogenic risk factors. Changes in alcohol consumption were significantly associated with the changes in systolic blood pressure and HDL cholesterol levels. Changes in cigarettes smoking also showed significant associations with the changes in triglyceride level and the ratio of total cholesterol to HDL cholesterol. These results suggest that although the education program for controlling weight may have limited success, weight reduction exhibits beneficial changes in the atherogenic risk-factor profile in middle-aged obese men.

Effects of body weight control on changes in blood pressure: three-year follow-up study in young Japanese individuals.

Numerous epidemiological studies have shown a close relationship between obesity and hypertension. However, there have been few reports on the relationship between changes in the body weight and blood pressure of lean to normal-weight young subjects. The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of body weight control on blood pressure in lean to obese young Japanese individuals in a 3-year follow-up study. University students (3,558 males and 1,418 females, aged 18.6+/-0.8 in 1994) were classified into 4 groups according to the baseline body mass index (BMI), and were followed up for 3 years. Among male students, changes in body weight were significantly correlated with changes in blood pressure during the 3 years in all 4 BMI groups, and the correlation coefficient was larger in the group with higher baseline BMI. Positive correlations between changes in body weight and changes in heart rate were noted only in the obese and mildly-obese groups. Also in female students, positive correlations were observed between changes in body weight and changes in blood pressure in lean to obese groups. However, no correlations between changes in body weight and changes in heart rate were noted in any of the female groups. To summarize, close correlations were observed between changes in body weight and those in blood pressure during the 3 years in both male and female university students. These findings suggest the importance of body weight control not only in obese but also in normal to mildly-obese young subjects in reducing or preventing an increase in blood pressure. There could be, however, a gender difference in the effects of body weight change on heart rate.