Effects Of Affluence Research Articles

Net effect of wealth on health for COVID-19 – worldwide state comparison

The wealth-health relationship is not unambiguous and constant. Indeed, a higher level of wealth affects individual and population health in two opposite ways. Increased risk factors raise the probability of some diseases. Conversely, better healthcare and awareness reduce the chances of developing these diseases or raise the likelihood of treatment and cure. Therefore, the overall impact on health or the “net effect” of wealth (positive or negative) may be challenging to determine. Moreover, this effect may not be fixed for different income groups. Thus, it states to reason that there may exist an “affluence point” changing the predominant impact of wealth (positive/negative), which we will refer to as the “health economic threshold”. This paper aims to assess and quantify the hard-to-grasp overall impact of prosperity on the prevalence and mortality of COVID-19. In particular, we attempt to estimate both the net effect of affluence and the health economic threshold by applying a dedicated analytical tool and problem-specific forecasting methods. Namely, we employ the existing idea of joinpoint regression to produce a specification that models the relationship between GDP and prevalence or mortality which is allowed to exhibit non-constant monotonicity. Finally, we calculate the numerical value of the net effect of affluence through extrapolation. Our results show that for COVID-19 morbidity and mortality, up to a certain level of GDP, the richer the country, the higher the prevalence. After exceeding this threshold, the number of cases stabilises at a very high level, while mortality decreases along with the prosperity of countries. It turned out that the countries of Western and Northern Europe used their wealth effectively, significantly reducing mortality. Unfortunately, in CEE the net effect of wealth was insignificant. Therefore, even with relatively high levels of prosperity compared to the rest of the world, governments and health systems have not risen to the challenge.

"Money makes the rooms go round": effects of affluence on room size and functions in 1890s houses

The 1890s was a decade in which a number of very large houses were either built or added to throughout the country. Their owners were commonly wealthy landowners or skilled businessmen. Room numbers and functions reflected the Victorian lifestyles of such people and tended to reflect similar trends in England although on a somewhat lesser scale. Room numbers of between 20 and 50 contrasted sharply with the four to eight rooms in an average family home of the time. In the latter the rooms were largely functional with the main family life centred around the kitchen and bedrooms. The big houses by contrast had extra rooms such as servants' quarters, ballrooms, billiard rooms, libraries, and dressing rooms and were often designed for entertaining and catering for visiting parties. The economic problems of the late 1880s and early '90s seem to have had little effect on those who might have been regarded as being on "The Rich List" whereas those on low incomes would not have been able to add more rooms such as parlours and bathrooms which became more common as conditions improved.

The net effect of wealth on health—Investigating noncommunicable diseases mortality in the context of regional affluence

The wealth-health relationship is not unambiguous and constant. Greater wealth affects individual and population health in opposite ways. Increased risk factors especially raise the probability of noncommunicable diseases (NCDs) impacting a population. Conversely, better healthcare and awareness reduce the chances of developing these diseases or increase the likelihood of treatment and cure. Therefore, this paper aims to assess and quantify the hard-to-grasp overall impact of prosperity on mortality from selected NCDs, allowing us to capture the relevant differences between European regions. In particular, we attempt to estimate the net effect of affluence and the health economic threshold of the GDP-mortality relationship, by developing a dedicated analytical tool based on joinpoint regression and forecasting methods. Our results show that in the case of most investigated diseases in more impoverished regions, a clear pattern reflects mortality rising with prosperity. After crossing the health economic threshold of around 20 thousand euros per capita, the trend changes by stabilising or reversing. The research we present shows that health policy should be more diversified locally to enable health convergence at the national and European regional levels. Moreover, health policy should evolve to prioritise mental and neurological disorders, by improving the resource allocation and increasing public awareness.

Inventorying and decomposing decades of overall nitrogen emissions in the Pearl River Delta urban agglomeration, China

The increase in nitrogen emissions has intensified environmental pollution, posing a serious threat to the sustainable development of human society. Nitrogen emissions originate from multiple sectors and products, generating various nitrogen species. However, existing studies have mostly focused on these nitrogen species individually, lacking a comprehensive analysis and interpretation. Here, we have integrated six different nitrogen species into a comprehensive indicator, namely overall nitrogen emissions. This study constructs a comprehensive emission inventory for 24 different products in 9 cities in the Pearl River Delta region of China from 2012 to 2021. Additionally, we use the index decomposition analysis (e.g., the Logarithmic Mean Divisia Index, LMDI) to analyze the main socioeconomic driving factors of overall nitrogen emissions in the Pearl River Delta over the decade (e.g., emission intensity, population, and affluence). We observed that Guangzhou has had the highest overall nitrogen emissions, reaching 4.24 Tg N, accounting for 27.64% over the past decade. Furthermore, overall nitrogen emissions in the Pearl River Delta have increased by 30.11%, from 1342.19 Gg N year−1 in 2012 to 1746.37 Gg N year−1 in 2021. Energy products are the primary contributing source to overall nitrogen emissions, followed by industrial and fertilizer products. Moreover, decomposition analysis results indicate that emission intensity is the main factor driving overall nitrogen emission reduction in the Pearl River Delta over the decade. However, affluence and population show a positive correlation with overall nitrogen emissions, offsetting the nitrogen reduction effect of emission intensity. Over time, the nitrogen reduction effect of emission intensity will gradually weaken, while the nitrogen increase effect of affluence and population will gradually strengthen. Our study highlights the importance of continued efforts to reduce emission intensity, while also transitioning towards non-nitrogen-intensive sectors or products in future economic development, thereby decoupling overall nitrogen emissions from affluence and population.

Decomposing Three Decades of Nitrogen Emissions in Canada

AbstractReactive nitrogen (Nr) emissions arise from multiple economic sectors, each creating distinct Nr species and impacts on environmental quality. In Canada, the relative contribution of different Nr species to total Nr emissions varies considerably across provinces, yet these Nr species are often studied separately, making comparison difficult. Here, we synthesize data from national emission inventories, as well as agricultural and wastewater statistics, to estimate total and per capita Nr emissions trends across Canada's 10 provinces over three decades between 1990 and 2017. We classified emissions by 4 main species of Nr, 3 source sectors, and 13 subsectors. Nr emissions peaked around 2000 followed by reductions both nationally and across almost all provinces. Agriculture replaced fossil fuel combustion as the largest source of Nr emissions after 2008, coinciding with regulatory interventions that aimed to reduce NOx emissions from transportation, while NH3 from crop production increased in several provinces. Using an index decomposition analysis, we further assessed the socioeconomic drivers of Nr emissions changes, including the roles of emission intensity (Nr emissions per unit of economic output), affluence, population, and structural changes in the economy. Reduced emission intensity (an aggregate indicator of technology and policy changes) counteracted some of the effects of affluence and population as positive drivers of Nr emissions. Economic structural changes had both large negative and positive effects on Nr emissions. Our results underscore the importance of continued reductions in emissions intensity as well as shifting economies toward less Nr intensive sectors to further decouple affluence from Nr pollution.

Drivers of changes in natural resources consumption of Central African countries

<abstract> <p>Consumption of nine different natural resources has kept an increasing trend in Central African countries from 1970 to 2018. This study therefore, investigates the changes and major determinants that have driven the patterns of resource use in six Central African countries over almost fifty years. We used the logarithmic mean Divisia index (LMDI) method to quantitatively analyze different effects of technology, affluence and population associated with domestic material consumption (DMC) of Cameroon, Chad, Central African Republic, Equatorial Guinea, Democratic Republic of the Congo and Gabon from 1970 to 2018. We further subdivided the affluence effect into energy productivity (GDP/energy) and per capita energy use (energy/cap) and conducted a four-factor LMDI analysis of Cameroon as a case study. The results highlight that decreased affluence during certain periods has slowed down DMC growth in four of six Central African countries except for Cameroon and Equatorial Guinea, while significant technology offset in Equatorial Guinea reduces DMC growth by 28%. Population remains the main positive driving factor of DMC growth, with the highest share in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. The case of Cameroon shows that technological intensity and energy intensity play different roles in changing DMC. This study confirms that the rising population and economic growth, combined with a gradual improvement in technology in the region are insufficient to reduce natural resource use. A stringent management plan of natural resources for Central African countries should focus on technological improvement while remaining balanced with the future demand for socioeconomic development in the coming decades.</p> </abstract>

The Inequality Trap & Willingness-to-Pay for Environmental Protections: The Contextual Effect of Income Inequality on Affluence & Trust

ABSTRACT Prior studies show affluence and trust increases economic support for environmental protections. However, despite widespread economic prosperity over the last two decades, variation in support for environmental protections persists across countries. We contend this variation is attributable to the growth of national income inequality which “traps” societies in environmental indifference by mitigating the effects of affluence and trust on the willingness-to-pay for environmental protections. Drawing on data from 45,000 adult respondents in 51 countries from multiple waves of the World Value Survey, we find economic development, socioeconomic status, and trust are important determinants of a respondent’s willingness-to-pay for environmental protections. More importantly, we find disposable income inequality suppresses the effects of these determinants on willingness-to-pay. Overall, the study illustrates how economic inequality contextualizes the effects of affluence and trust on environmental support which creates a barrier to widespread environmental support across countries.

China's CO2 emission intensity and its drivers: An evolutionary Geo-Tree approach

Current studies have focused on China's CO2 emission intensity (CEI); however, its geospatial temporal effect is still not clear. Here, we constructed an evolutionary Geo-tree model in combination with spatial econometrics to examine geospatial temporal processes affecting CEI. The Geo-tree provides a schema to geovisualize the effects of CEI's drivers from 1990 to 2016. Spatial econometric outputs indicate that affluence or economic development as well as low-carbon technology has significant inhibitory effects on CEI. Furthermore, the direct inhibitory effect of affluence strengthened over time. In contrast, energy consumption structure and innovation represented by patent raise CEI. While the positive effect decreased over time for energy consumption as coal consumption fell, it remained relatively stable for patent level. Urbanization level as well as industrial development are also positive but not significant in 2006–2016. When the spatial model analysis is combined with the evolutionary Geo-tree, the geovisualization model depicts a taller green tree over time with denser foliage at the crown. As the spatial econometrics results suggest, such evolution towards a lower carbon economy among a number of provinces is likely explained by affluence and, to a lesser extent, the adoption of low-carbon technology. Geo-tree also shows that many provinces are relatively urbanized by 2016 which explains why this factor has no effect in the second period.

Investigation of the STIRPAT model of environmental quality: a case of nonlinear quantile panel data analysis

The determination in the quality of the environment is the outcome of increasing intensity and complexity of the economic activity. This predicament has gained attention leading to several research studies. This study adds on to the literature in estimating EKC within STIRPAT perspective. An investigation of 198 countries between 1990 and 2018 was assessed using Panel Quantile Regression. This study confirmed robust U-shaped EKC for the case of industry-, agriculture- and service-based affluence effect which denotes that over-reliance reap footprint and there is a need of aligning these real sectors sustainably. The quadratic function specification utilized helped this study to categorize sample countries in terms of sustainable or non-sustainable with respect to average affluence. Policymakers are urged to pursuit sustainable composition of real sector economic activity, which will help in increasing environmental quality.

Carbon dioxide emission decomposition along the gradient of economic development: The case of energy sustainability in the G7 and Brazil, Russia, India, China and South Africa

AbstractThe G7 and Brazil, Russia, India, China and South Africa (BRICS) nations have committed to greenhouse gas emission reduction according to targets set out in the Paris Agreement and Copenhagen Accord. The objective of this paper is to develop an index decomposition framework and apply it for comparison of the drivers behind carbon dioxide emission. The impact of economic and technological development on greenhouse gas emissions is assessed by applying the Kaya identity. The index decomposition analysis is carried out by applying the Shapley value. In this paper, we seek to compare the two groups of countries—G7 and BRICS—in regard to the underlying trends in the energy‐related carbon dioxide emission during 1990–2015. The comparison of these two groups for countries draws some light on the pathways of decarbonization of the economies in developing and developed countries. The time period covered spans over the sub‐periods of economic growth and decline. Energy intensity appeared as the major factor pushing the carbon dioxide emissions down in the developed countries (i.e., G7 group). The latter effect was much lower for the developing countries (i.e., BRICS group) and was offset by the affluence effect. Further development of the renewable energy is important for the developing countries in order to start exploiting the carbon factor effect.

The change in the material stock of urban infrastructures in China

The materials stocked in infrastructures comprehensively reflect resource consumption, waste generation and sustainable development; therefore, research investigating this topic is particularly important. First, this paper uses the bottom-up material flow analysis method to account for the material stocks (MS) in urban infrastructures and examines the spatial and temporal changes in the MS in China from 1997 to 2016. The results show that MS increased 4.04 times during this period and are spatially inclined to decrease from coastal regions to inland areas. Second, this paper combines the population and economic factors using the IPAT model (which considers the environmental Impact as a product of the Population, Affluence and Technology) and a panel data regression analysis to conclude that affluence is the major driving factor increasing MS, while the impact of technology has a negative effect throughout China. The effect of affluence in different regions is consistent with that throughout China, but the population and technology changes have different effects. Third, this study estimates the environmental impact under different scenarios and proposes suggestions and strategies for promoting sustainable development.

Features and drivers for energy-related carbon emissions in mega city: The case of Guangzhou, China based on an extended LMDI model.

Based on the apparent energy consumption data, a systematic and comprehensive city-level total carbon accounting approach was established and applied in Guangzhou, China. A newly extended LMDI method based on the Kaya identity was adopted to examine the main drivers for the carbon emissions increments both at the industrial sector and the residential sector. Research results are listed as follow: (1) Carbon emissions embodied in the imported electricity played a significant important role in emissions mitigation in Guangzhou. (2) The influences and impacts of various driving factors on industrial and residential carbon emissions are different in the three different development periods, namely, the 10th five-year plan period (2003–2005), the 11th five-year plan period (2005–2010), and the 12th five-year plan period (2010–2013). The main reasons underlying these influencing mechanisms were different policy measures announced by the central and local government during the different five-year plan periods. (3) The affluence effect (g-effect) was the dominant positive effect in driving emissions increase, while the energy intensity effect of production (e-effect-Production), the economic structure effect (s-effect) and the carbon intensity effect of production (f-effect-Production) were the main contributing factors suppressing emissions growth at the industrial sector. (4) The affluence effect of urban (g-effect-AUI) was the most dominant positive driving factor on emissions increment, while the energy intensity effect of urban (e-effect-Urban) played the most important role in curbing emissions growth at the residential sector.

Discerning the factors explaining the change in energy efficiency

Due to the high rates of energy consumption and its impact on environment over the last decades, policy decision-makers are increasingly recognising the need to take actions that allow to address problems associated with the deployment of non-renewable resources and climate changes. One field of action has been the promotion of measures that contribute to improve energy efficiency of countries. The purpose of this study is to identify the main factors explaining changes in energy efficiency applying the multiplicative Log Mean Divisia Index decomposition method for a set of countries (Portugal, UK, Brazil and China) with different socio-economic background and energy mix. The results show that overall energy efficiency trends display different patterns between countries and the same happens within each country from a sectoral perspective. Major drivers of improvements of overall energy efficiency were the intensity effect and the affluence effect, whereas the driver that hampered those improvements was the energy consumption per capita. Some policy implications derived from the results achieved are: policy decision-makers should support measures that promote the adoption of energy-saving technologies resulting from new technological developments; policy measures should be directed to raise awareness of end-users regarding energy efficiency and energy conservation efforts; policy measures promoting economic growth through the development (or expansion) of sectors of activity that consume less energy can also be implemented; finally, policy instruments may also be used to reduce the costs of implementing energy efficiency and energy-saving measures to households and firms.

Client and therapist match on gender, age, and income: Does match within the therapeutic dyad predict early growth in the therapeutic alliance?

Because of the importance of the therapeutic alliance across psychotherapeutic treatments, it is important to study variables that predict the development of a positive therapeutic alliance. This study investigates if different levels of gender, age, and income match between therapists and clients predict early development of the therapeutic alliance. The sample consisted of 28 therapists and 547 adult clients receiving individual psychotherapy for depressive symptoms. There were no exclusion criteria and no control over treatment delivery. Session-to-session assessments of the therapeutic alliance were collected and a growth mixture modeling framework with a priori identified classes corresponding to different levels of therapist-client match was utilized to examine differential alliance growth trajectories. No differential effect of match on any level was found on initial ratings of the alliance. Across levels of attribute match, clients tend to rate the alliance positively. Regarding growth, a "youth effect" and an "affluence effect" was noted. Dyads where the therapist is younger than the client, and dyads where the therapist is from a higher income status than the client, show additional growth in the alliance beyond positive initial ratings. This is effect is not constant across sessions. Matching on gender, income, and age can be used for case assignment heuristic, in particular to produce additional growth in the alliance beyond initial positive ratings. Clinical and scientific consequences of the study are discussed.

Affluence and Subjective Well-Being: Does Income Inequality Moderate their Associations?

Using the Gallup World Poll data, we examined whether national income inequality moderated the effects of affluence on individual subjective well-being (SWB). Multilevel analyses found that people reported higher life evaluation in years when their nation had higher GDP. Between-nation effects showed that people in wealthier nations reported greater SWB (but also more negative feelings) than those in poorer nations. Furthermore, people in unequal nations (i.e., greater income inequality) reported higher life evaluation and positive feelings than those in more equal nations. National income inequality also moderated the effects of individual-level income on SWB— income showed stronger associations with SWB in more equal nations than in nations with higher income inequality. People who earned higher incomes had higher life evaluation and positive feelings, and lower negative feelings than those who earned lower incomes, but the effects were stronger in more equal nations. These findings suggest that money matters less to the SWB of people in unequal nations than those in equal nations.

Scaling down the “Netherlands Fallacy”: a local-level quantitative study of the effect of affluence on the carbon footprint across the United States

Much quantitative research examining the determinants of the ecological footprint has been conducted cross-nationally, where data on cross-boundary flows have been readily available. While local-level studies of the footprint do exist for specific localities, most quantitative research at this scale has examined direct environmental impacts attributed to the internal activities of the locality, for instance, carbon emissions. Our analysis builds on this previous work by exploiting a local-level carbon footprint dataset with coverage for 28,321 zip codes across the United States. Following prior research, we focus on the effect of local affluence, measured in terms of median household income. In spatial regression models, we regress the per capita carbon footprint on local affluence, controlling for a variety of other factors. Consistent with previous work, we find that affluence is positively correlated the carbon footprint and there is no evidence of an environmental Kuznets curve. In the conclusion, we review the results of the study and discuss their implications for policy, specifically in terms of cross-boundary environmental problems.

Neighborhood context and birth outcomes: Going beyond neighborhood disadvantage, incorporating affluence

•Neighborhood affluence protects against the risk of poor birth outcome. •The protective effect of affluence holds for Whites, Blacks, Hispanics and Asians. •Mediation of these pathways by prenatal smoking varies by racial group. •The discourse on neighborhoods and birth outcomes should include affluence.

Trouble at the National Trust: Post-war Recreation, the Benson Report and the Rebuilding of a Conservation Organization in the 1960s

The growth of conservation organizations like the National Trust for England, Wales and Northern Ireland (NT), the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds and the county wildlife trusts was one of the more striking features of post-war social change. With their roots in late Victorian and Edwardian ideas of preservation and conservation, the membership of these organizations expanded sharply from the 1960s. The success of these groups, however, also brought its own problems. In particular the practical issues associated with their growth forced them to ask what kind of organizations they were and what kind of organizations they might become. The article focuses on the NT and the soul searching that it undertook in the late 1960s. It draws on but partly seeks to revise recent research on environmental and conservation organizations. In doing so, it documents how the transformation of the NT fits the professionalization thesis proposed within the existing historiographical literature, whilst seeking to draw attention to the influence of broader sociological changes associated with mass affluence and the growth of popular recreation. Given its patrician leadership, the NT was challenged by the democratizing effects of affluence and by the wider climate of cultural modernization. It was this set of cultural and social developments, rather than simply the inevitable logic of professionalization, which provided the conditions in which the Trust was impelled to reinvent itself and modernize its ways of working.

Are Happier People More Willing to Make Income Sacrifices to Protect the Environment?

There is considerable amount of debate about the effect of affluence on environmental concern. The empirical literature is inconclusive on this debate. Increasingly, more studies are examining individual level correlates of environmental concern. On the other hand, a large number of studies examine the correlates of happiness. An important aspect of the economics of happiness literature emphasizes the relationship between environmental quality or concern and happiness. A few scholars suggest that happiness may influence environmental concern. Yet studies on whether happiness affects environmental concern are lacking. This paper empirically investigates the effect of happiness on environmental concern in a cross-national sample. Using data for 18 countries, I find that happier people are more willing to make income sacrifices to protect the environment. This finding holds for residents of both African and developed countries.

The Rich are Different: The Effect of Wealth on Partisanship

Rich voters tend to be Republicans and poor voters tend to be Democrats. Yet, in most settings it is difficult to distinguish the effects of affluence on partisanship from those of closely related variables such as education. To address these concerns I use state lottery and administrative records to examine the effect of changing economic circumstances on the partisanship of over 1,900 registered voters. Winning larger amounts in the lottery produces a small increase in the probability an individual is later a registered Republican, an effect that is larger for those who registered to vote after winning. This suggests that wealth does affect partisanship, particularly for those without preexisting attachments to a political party. Comparing estimates from the lottery to cross-sectional data suggests the latter exaggerates the relationship between wealth and partisanship, although controlling for additional variables produces largely similar estimates.