Educational Heterogamy Research Articles

How couples meet and assortative mating in Canada

AbstractObjectiveThis study examines, for the first time in Canada, the relationship between how different‐sex couples meet and assortative mating on education, race, nativity, and age.BackgroundExtending research on how the likelihood of heterogamy differed between offline and online dating, this study disentangles the implications of institutional and third‐person influences from those of online dating for configuring the patterns of heterogamy and gender asymmetry in assortative mating.MethodData from a 2018 national survey are analyzed using (multinomial) logit models.ResultsEducational heterogamy and nativity heterogamy are higher, but age heterogamy appears lower, in online than offline dating. Next, specific channels of offline dating—formal institutions, social ties, and other channels—are distinguished and compared with online dating. Online dating tends to entail higher educational and nativity heterogamy (vs. meeting through formal institutions), higher racial and nativity heterogamy but lower age heterogamy (vs. meeting through social ties), and higher educational heterogamy (vs. meeting through other offline channels). Further considering gender asymmetry shows that online dating is associated with higher educational hypergyny (more‐educated man, less‐educated woman) than meeting through other offline channels; higher nativity hypogyny (immigrant man, native‐born woman) than meeting offline (overall, formal institutions, social ties); and lower age hypergyny (older man, younger woman) than meeting offline through social ties.ConclusionThe findings help untangle the roles of institutional, social, and digital forces in shaping assortative mating. They illustrate the importance of leveraging theoretically informed comparisons to understand how online and offline dating configures assortative mating and its gender‐asymmetric patterns.

Partners’ Educational Pairings and Subjective Well-Being in China: An Analysis Using the Diagonal Mobility Model

Using pooled data from the Chinese General Social Survey in 2010, 2012, 2013, and 2015, this study investigated the relationship between partners’ educational pairings and subjective well-being among Chinese. Diagonal mobility models were employed to avoid conflating the effect of each partner’s education and the effect of the difference in education between partners. The findings reveal that regarding the well-being consequences of partners’ educational pairings, the hypothesis of satisfaction with marrying up outweighs the hypothesis of educational homogamy advantages and the hypothesis of sex roles. Specifically, for both women and men, persons marrying up in education are more likely to feel happy than their educationally homogamous counterparts. Moreover, educational hypergamy confers more psychological benefits to women in high-income communities than those in low-income communities. In addition, the earnings difference between partners plays a part in men’s SWB. Husbands who earn less than their wives are more likely to be unhappy than those whose earnings are 1–1.5 times those of their wives, suggesting that sex-role norms are at work. Our study contributes to a deeper understanding of the well-being consequences of educational heterogamy.

Educational heterogamy during the early phase of the educational expansion: Results from the university town of Tartu, Estonia in the late 19th century

Background: From a historical perspective, the transition from a pre-industrial to a modern society is associated with increasing social status heterogamy. As individuals’ acquired characteristics became more important for partner selection than inherited class status, the importance of status homogamy declined and marrying outside one’s own social group became more frequent. Objective: We investigate educational heterogamy in a university town at the end of the 19th century. We ask whether marriage of unequally educated partners is related to dissimilarity in the partners’ other characteristics. Ethnic background, origin (place of birth), and age difference between the spouses are considered as characteristics that may associate with sorting into educationally heterogamous unions. Methods: The analysis uses data from the 1897 census in Tartu. Using logistic regression modelling, we estimate how age difference, origin heterogamy, and ethnic heterogamy of the spouses associate with educational heterogamy. Results: The results indicate a positive relationship between educational heterogamy and marrying outside one’s own ethnic or origin group, but no effect for spousal age difference. Conclusions: Our study provides new evidence about marriage markets during modernisation, specifically regarding the role of education. We show that educationally heterogamous unions in Tartu were often also more heterogamous in terms of partners’ background characteristics. This suggests that the partner’s education may have motivated intermarriage by ethnicity and origin. Contribution: Previous literature on this period has focused on social homogamy based on occupational information, while research on educational assortative mating mostly exists for the second half of the 20th century and later. We contribute by studying the importance of education in marital selection in the early phase of educational expansion and economic modernisation.

Opposites Attract: Assortative Mating and Immigrant\u2013Native Intermarriage in Contemporary Sweden

This paper studies how immigrant–native intermarriages in Sweden are associated with individual characteristics of native men and women and patterns of assortative mating. Patterns of educational- and age-assortative mating that are similar to those found in native–native marriages may reflect openness to immigrant groups, whereas assortative mating patterns that indicate status considerations suggest that country of birth continues to serve as a boundary in the native marriage market. The study uses Swedish register data that cover the entire Swedish population for the period of 1991–2009. The results from binomial and multinomial logistic regressions show that low status of natives in terms of economic and demographic characteristics is associated with intermarriage and that intermarriages are characterized by educational and age heterogamy more than are native–native marriages. The findings indicate that immigrant women as well as immigrant men become more attractive marriage partners if they are considerably younger than their native spouses. This is particularly true for intermarriages with immigrants from certain regions of origin, such as wives from Asia and Africa and husbands from Asia, Africa, and the Middle East. Gender differences in the intermarriage patterns of native men and women are surprisingly small.

Homogamy and heterogamy in sub-Saharan Africa: Implications for couples’ fertility behaviour

ABSTRACTThis study examines patterns of homogamy and heterogamy and their implications for couple’s fertility behaviour. Data were obtained from demographic and health surveys conducted in Ghana, Nigeria and Zambia between 2001 and 2014. The study population were couples in a monogamous union where wives were aged 35 years and over: 1785 in Ghana, 3185 in Nigeria and 3175 in Zambia. Results of the descriptive analysis show that educational, religious and ethnic homogamy and occupational heterogamy were predominant among the couples and mean children ever born varied according to couples’ characteristics. The significant predictors of fertility as revealed in the multivariate analysis included educational homogamy and heterogamy, occupational homogamy, age difference and religious and ethnic homogamy. To expedite fertility transition in the three countries and other sub-Saharan African countries, programmes and policies aimed at reducing fertility in the region should incorporate strategies that focus on the characteristics of couples in union.

Educational heterogamy

Socio-demographic heterogamy is commonly believed to lead to lower relationship stability due to the presence of cultural differences between partners. This explanation lacks empirical support, as psychology studies have not confirmed the link between heterogamy and cultural differences, whereas sociological studies have been characterized by problems related to the choice and measurement of cultural differences. Progressing from previous research, this article examines the specific link between educational heterogamy and cultural differences in the domain of child-rearing. Results partly confirm the alternative hypotheses of child-rearing values and behaviors being subject to gender differences and processes of selection between partners. Nonetheless, they also indicate a positive link between educational heterogamy and differences in child-rearing values and behaviors between partners.

Educational Heterogamy and the Division of Paid Labour in the Family: A Comparison of Present-Day Belgium and Sweden

This study builds on the long-standing theoretical interest in the importance of comparative advantages between partners for the division of paid labour in the family. It adopts a couple perspective on women’s relative labour market participation by considering the role of educational heterogamy. Additionally, it takes account of the family life cycle by means of the presence of (young) children. The importance of these two factors for women’s relative labour market participation is compared between Belgium and Sweden—two European countries that share socio-economic features but differ regarding labour market and social policies relevant for gender equality and potential gains to specialization. Multinomial logistic diagonal reference models are used to analyse the pooled cross-sectional data of EU-SILC 2004–2008. Contrary to expectations, we find that comparative advantages between partners, as measured by educational heterogamy, are of only minor importance for determining the couple’s division of paid labour in such diverse countries as Belgium and Sweden. Our results show that women’s relative labour market participation is less education-driven in Sweden than in Belgium, and is more related to the life cycle effect of the presence of (young) children, confirming more egalitarianism and family friendliness in Scandinavia than in continental Europe.

The effects of homogamy in socio-economic background and education on the transition from cohabitation to marriage

This study explores the effects of homogamy and heterogamy in socio-economic background and educational level on the marriage rate among cohabitors. Using unique register data and the Cox proportional hazards model, we analyse marriage formation in over 20,000 cohabiting unions in Finland. The large number of observations enables an inspection of the interactive effects in all partner-status combinations. Our results show that homogamy or heterogamy in socio-economic background is of little consequence for the couple’s probability of marrying; homogamy encourages marriage only among cohabitors from farmer families. With regard to education, homogamy increases the marriage rate among cohabitors with a low level of education, but reduces it among the highly educated. Whether educational heterogamy promotes, deters or has no effect on the marriage rate depends on the combination. The results emphasize the importance of a detailed measurement of homogamy and heterogamy when examining the role of group boundaries in union transitions.

The relationship between educational homogamy and educational mobility in 29 European countries

This article deals with the relationship between educational homogamy and educational mobility in 29 European countries. It answers three interrelated questions: (1) Is there any relationship between educational mobility and educational homogamy? (2) Does educational homogamy diverge from educational mobility (negative relationship) or does educational heterogamy strengthen educational mobility (positive relationship)? (3) If there is any positive relationship, do educational mobility and educational heterogamy indicate the level of educational inequality to the same degree? To answer these questions the authors use data from three waves of the European Social Survey (2002, 2004 and 2006). The answers are given in absolute (percentages) as well as in relative measures (log-multiplicative effects). The results show that there is a positive relationship between educational mobility and educational heterogamy. For all countries analysed, relative educational heterogamy is a stronger indicator of educational inequalities than relative educational mobility. The systematic deviation of educational heterogamy from educational mobility is explained by a number of factors that the authors discuss in the last part of the article.

Educational Inequality, Homogamy, and Status Exchange in Black‐White Intermarriage: A Comment on Rosenfeld

Educational Inequality, Homogamy, and Status Exchange in Black‐White Intermarriage: A Comment on Rosenfeld

Education, Educational Heterogamy, and Self-Assessed Health in Europe: A Multilevel Study of Spousal Effects in 29 European Countries

This study extends earlier research on educational inequality and health in two ways. First, we examine whether own educational level and spouse's educational level are independently associated with self-assessed health throughout European societies by analysing 29 countries simultaneously. Second, we ask to what extent educational heterogamy at the country level is related to health differences between and within countries. Theories on social capital lead to the hypotheses that average health is better in countries with more educational heterogamy, and educational differentiation in health is smaller in countries with more educational heterogamy. To test our expectations, we use individual data from the European Social Survey of 2002, 2004, and 2006 (N = 59,314) as well as country-level data. Using multilevel analyses, we find that not only one's own educational level, but additionally the spouse's level of education positively affects self-assessed health in Europe. The degree of educational heterogamy does not influence the average level of self-assessed health in a country. However, the positive relationships between own and partner's education and self-assessed health are weaker as the degree of educational heterogamy at the national level is higher.

Racial and Educational Homogamy: 1980 to 2000

Two recent trends in marriage imply different consequences for the degree of heterogeneity in American society: Increasing racial intermarriage indicates higher levels of social integration, while continued educational homogamy potentially enlarges socioeconomic inequality. This article analyzes census 5 percent Public Use Micro Samples data from 1980 to 2000 and examines the two trends simultaneously. Results suggest that racial homogamy has gradually declined but remains as the strongest pattern. Educational homogamy shows a diverse pattern of change, with an overall flat or slightly declining trend, and the best educated and the least educated are both more homogamous than those who have intermediate levels of education. Those who intermarry by race tend to have higher levels of education, and there is a modest positive relationship between racial and educational heterogamy.

Homogamy among Dating, Cohabiting, and Married Couples

The winnowing hypothesis posits that transitions from dating to cohabiting to marital unions are marked by increasing selectivity in the mate selection or matching process. In this paper, we provide comparative estimates of educational, racial, and religious homogamy and heterogamy along a continuum of commitment: sexually intimate dating couples, cohabiting couples, and married couples. Log-linear models, fitted to cross-classified data from the 1995 National Survey of Family Growth, provide only partial support for the winnowing hypothesis. On the one hand, homogamy with respect to race and religion increases slightly as relationships progress from dating to cohabitation to marriage. On the other hand, each relationship–dating, cohabiting, and married–is marked by substantial homogamy, at least for the traits considered here. And, in the absence of homogamy, each couple type reveals quite similar patterns of educational heterogamy or intermarriage, although upward mobility through partnering is less evident among cohabitors. Overall, however, the rather stringent sorting criteria that men and women use in selecting a marital partner, which manifests itself in marital homogamy, is also used in dating and cohabiting relationships.

Homogamy Among Dating, Cohabiting, and Married Couples

The winnowing hypothesis posits that transitions from dating to cohabiting to marital unions are marked by increasing selectivity in the mate selection or matching process. In this paper, we provide comparative estimates of educational, racial, and religious homogamy and heterogamy along a continuum of commitment: sexually intimate dating couples, cohabiting couples, and married couples. Log-linear models, fitted to cross-classified data from the 1995 National Survey of Family Growth, provide only partial support for the winnowing hypothesis. On the one hand, homogamy with respect to race and religion increases slightly as relationships progress from dating to cohabitation to marriage. On the other hand, each relationship–dating, cohabiting, and married–is marked by substantial homogamy, at least for the traits considered here. And, in the absence of homogamy, each couple type reveals quite similar patterns of educational heterogamy or intermarriage, although upward mobility through partnering is less evident among cohabitors. Overall, however, the rather stringent sorting criteria that men and women use in selecting a marital partner, which manifests itself in marital homogamy, is also used in dating and cohabiting relationships.

The Effects of Socioeconomic Heterogamy and Changes on Marital Dissolution for First Marriages

National Longitudinal Surveys are used to investigate the patterns and determinants of marital dissolution for first marriages [in the United States]. The focus of this paper is to examine the associations between socioeconomic status differences and changes within marriage of marital partners and marital instability. Based on a discrete hazard model the results indicate the risk of marital instability is highest among couples who have heterogamous education and who do not follow the most traditional working arrangement where only the husband is employed full-time in the labor market. Those couples who do equalize their original education and conventionalize employment status enjoy higher marital stability. However marriages in which couples change to educational heterogamy and unconventional employment statuses are less likely to survive. (EXCERPT)

Distinction by consumption in Czechoslovakia, Hungary, and the Netherlands

In this paper I investigate the impact of educational heterogamy on culture consumption and the impact of both educational heterogamy and status inconsistency on material consumption. Data from the 1986 TARKI Survey on Social Stratification in Hungary, the 1984 Social and Class Structure Survey of Czechoslovakia, and the Dutch 1977 Life Situation Survey are analyzed. Several hypotheses are tested employing diagonal reference models including covariates. The analysis of culture consumption shows that most variance is captured by a 'status maximization model' for Czechoslovakia and Hungary. This model assumes that the partner with the higher education has the strongest impact. The Dutch data show a pattern which contradicts such an effect, i.e. if the education of the respondent is at a lower level than that of the spouse, the former's education prevails. The analysis of material life-styles shows that for the Dutch data there is a male-dominance effect. There is no such effect in the two East European countries. Additionally, using a new design for detecting statusinconsistency effects, several such effects for the Netherlands and Hungary become apparent. For the Netherlands under-rewarded couples in general (those with low income and relatively high education) tend to have an extra low level of material consumption and over-rewarded couples (those with high income and relatively low education) tend to have an extra high level of material consumption. For Hungary this inconsistency effect becomes even stronger the more status-inconsistent couples are. For Czechoslovakia no inconsistency effect could be detected.

The impact of family background and early marital factors on marital disruption.

Data from the National Survey of Families and Households for 1987-1988 are used to explore methodological and substantive issues concerning marital dissolution in the United States. "The analysis finds that marital disruptions are seriously underreported by males, making the analysis of male marital histories problematic. Also, the potential impact of reconciliations on the estimates of recent marital disruption based on separation is explored; no upward bias is likely to result from the inclusion of separations that may subsequently reconcile. The impact of a wide variety of factors on the risk of marital disruption is examined using proportional hazard techniques. Among them are included parental background factors, respondent's characteristics at the time of marriage, differences in spouses' characteristics, and joint activity statuses of marital partners in the first year of marriage. The risk of marital disruption is highest among women with young age at marriage, low education, a cohabitation history, and those whose spouse has been married previously. Parental family disruption affects marital stability primarily through age at marriage and cohabitation. Religious and educational heterogamy and male unemployment reduce marital stability."

Educational heterogamy and father–to–son occupational mobility in 23 industrial nations: General societal openness or compensatory strategies of reproduction?

This article presents 41 educational heterogamy tables for 23 industrial nations after World War II. Countries differ in gross heterogamy rates and relative chances of heterogamy. Evidence is found in favour of a trend towards higher gross rates of heterogamy and towards more equal relative chances of heterogamy. Hypotheses on effects of economic and political factors are tested. The contribution these factors make to the explanation of relative heterogamy is smaller than found in studies on intergenerational mobility. Between countries more equal relative father-to-son occupational mobility chances go together with more equal relative chances of educational heterogamy. Within countries relative mobility chances are more equal than relative chances of heterogamy. All in all Lipset and Zetterberg's notion of general societal openness is confirmed, whereas Bourdieu's notion tblt mobilit~ d heterogamy are compensatory strategi~ · of reproduction is not upheld.

Educational heterogamy and marital satisfaction between spouses

In choosing marriage partners, we generally look for someone with similar status characteristics to our own. This paper suggests that status inequalities may be hypothesized to make a difference in marital satisfaction. Using the couple as the unit of analysis, the effects of educational heterogamy on marital satisfaction were investigated. Using ordinary least-squares regression, we found that when husbands had more education than their wives, both partners reported less than happy marriages with more disagreement and less positive feedback. Conversely, when the wife had more education, both partners reported more satisfaction with the marriage. Using results from the ordinary least-squares regression, a two-stage least-squares model was estimated. In this more complete model, the strongest effect on each partner's marital satisfaction was the feedback regarding the other partner's happiness within the marriage. Possible explanations for these findings are presented. We argue that longitudinal studies, using the couple as the unit of analysis, are essential if we wish to study the processes of marital interaction between spouses.