Edo Period Research Articles

The Meaning of the Patriarch’s Coming from the West: A Study of Triptych of Three Zen Masters: Linji, Bodhidharma, and Deshan

In the mid-seventeenth century, Chinese Chan master Yinyuan Longqi 隱元隆琦 (Jp. Ingen Ryūki, 1592–1673), accompanied by several disciples, traveled to Japan and established Ōbaku Zen, a new sect of Zen Buddhism in Tokugawa Japan. Ōbaku art, particularly portrait paintings of Ōbaku abbots and their spiritual predecessors, became critical representations of the sect and greatly influenced later Japanese Buddhist art. While much of the existing scholarship focuses on the artistic and stylistic aspects of Ōbaku portraiture, this paper emphasizes its religious context and doctrinal dimensions. Building on Elizabeth Horton Sharf’s inquiry into the “meaning and function” of Ōbaku portrait painting, the paper investigates how Ōbaku doctrine is expressed through these images. Using the Triptych of Three Zen Masters: Linji, Bodhidharma, and Deshan as a case study, this paper explores the role of portraiture in visually conveying Ōbaku teachings and the religious aspirations of those Chinese immigrant monks. By examining the integration of image, inscription, and seal as a unified “pictorial trinity”, the paper argues that Ōbaku portraiture embodies the sect’s distinct doctrine, rooted in Ming-era Chan practices such as beating, shouting, and strict dharma transmission. Moreover, the prominence of Bodhidharma in Ōbaku portraits, as illustrated in the triptych, reflects these Chinese immigrant monks’ desire to emulate Bodhidharma in spreading the dharma and expanding their sect’s influence in a new land.

Понятие ки в теории японских боевых искусств эпохи Токугава. На материале трактата Иссай Тёдзан «Рассуждения тэнгу об искусстве [меча]» 1729 г.

The concept of кi (Chinese Qi) – “pneuma”, “air”, “breath”, “spirit”, “energy”, “life force”, “matter”, etc. – is one of the fundamental and most specific cate­gories of Chinese and, more broadly, Far Eastern philosophical thought. In Japan, the assimilation of the кi category began with the penetration of Chinese reli­gious and philosophical thought. In the theory of martial arts (bujutsu) – the arts of swordsmanship, etc. – the category ki enters in the Tokugawa era (1603–1867) along with the establishment of Confucianism as the dominant current of social thought. In 1729, Issai Chozan (1659–1741) published the treatise Tengu geijutsu ron (“Discourses of tengu on the art [of swordsmanship]”), in which, for the first time in bujutsu literature, he not only systematically examined the functions of ki, but also gave practical instructions on managing ki with the help of breath­ing exercises and concentration practice, laying the foundation for the develop­ment of martial arts as one of the methods of “nurturing life” (Japanese yojo, Chinese yangsheng). The article systematizes Issai Chozan’s ideas about the es­sence and functions of the ki, and reveals the place of this concept in the peda­gogical technology of achieving mastery in martial art

Family, State, Family-state

Maruyama Masao (1914–1996) became a leading figure of post-war Japanese democratization with the publication of his essay “Theory and Psychology of Ultra-Nationalism” (1946). The idea of kokutai was central to his interpretation of ultra-nationalism as a concept that connected ‘nationalistic’ ideas of the late Tokugawa period with the imperialist propaganda of the 1930s. This concept was linked with the millennia-old Chinese notion of the ruler as the ‘father’ of the people in a land that is an extension of the family (jia). In Japan, however, the connection between the family (kazoku) and the nation(state) (kokka) was based on the imperial linage that upheld the blood-relation between the tennō and the deities. In the present paper, I will examine Maruyama’s interpretation of the role of the family in Japanese ultra-nationalism on the basis of his studies “The Ideology and Dynamics of Japanese Fascism” (1948) and “Nationalism in Japan: Its Theoretical Background and Prospects” (1951) (in Thought and Behavior in Modern Japanese Politics, 1956; in English, 1963), linking these essays with Maruyama’s war-time studies on the Tokugawa era. I will show that the elements on which Maruyama focused his analysis of the ‘family-state’ (kazokukokka) are those features of Japanese nationalism that he had already detected in his war-year studies; that is, features in which he saw the preservation of the Tokugawa social structure of hōkensei. I will argue that this social structure was understood by Maruyama as a power structure in which the ‘transfer of oppression’ is possible due to the decentralized, i.e., family-like character of social relationships.

Iwakura Mission and the Network of Japanese Students in the United States

Abstract One notable characteristic of the Iwakura Mission was, in Tanaka Akira’s words, its historical and cultural “continuity in discontinuity.” While its leaders were mostly from the aristocracy and the powerful Satsuma and Chōshū domains with little experience in the West, the secretaries who assisted them were former Tokugawa retainers that were experts in foreign affairs. The ryūgakusei, or overseas students, who were in the United States or Europe prior to the mission’s arrival and joined them on site, were another group that exemplified the “continuity.” Reform-minded daimyo and the progressive members of the Tokugawa regime had dispatched many to the West during the Tokugawa period with the very purpose to become useful servants to assist Japan’s quick and successful modernization. Once recruited to the mission, these ryūgakusei served as guides, interpreters, and investigators, collecting and compiling information on various institutions and policies in the respective countries. The knowledge, experience, and linguistic skills they had acquired and the network they created while abroad were vital in facilitating the Iwakura Mission and the new Meiji government’s subsequent effort of modernization.

Nondestructive analysis of internal crystallographic structures of Japanese swords using neutron imaging

Crystallographic information and the internal structure of Japanese swords are crucial for understanding their metallurgical characteristics and exploring their making process. By accumulating such information from various swords made in different regions, eras and by different swordsmiths, we believe it will greatly aid in the comprehensive understanding of Japanese swords. We have been investigating Japanese swords using nondestructive analysis methods of neutron Bragg-edge transmission (BET) imaging and neutron tomography. BET provides insights into the crystalline structure of the steel, while the neutron tomography offers cross-sectional views of the sword. In this study, we examined three swords: Kashu Kiyomitsu, Nankaitaro Tomotaka, and Hosokawa Masanori, crafted between the Edo era (ca. 1603–1850) and the Meiji era (1868–1912).Kashu Kiyomitsu, from the early Edo era, exhibited a complex internal structure, with crystallite size of 0.5 µm or less around the cutting tip. Furthermore, other regions with crystallite sizes of 1 µm or larger were observed, extending from the middle area of the blade to the vicinity of the tang. The cross-sectional features of Kashu Kiyomitsu suggest that the sword has a complex structure probably combining low-carbon steel Kawagane and Shingane with a dedicated high-carbon steel for the cutting edge, Hagane. The martensite phase, indicating the quenched area, extended evenly over approximately 4 mm. In contrast, both Nankaitaro Tomotaka, from the late Edo era, and Hosokawa Masanori, from the Meiji era, exhibited relatively uniform crystallographic structures throughout the entire blade. In Nankaitaro Tomotaka, the martensite phase extended over a width of 4–6 mm from the cutting edge, confirming the arch-like boundary between martensite and ferrite/pearlite within the blade. In Hosokawa Masanori, the martensite phase extended over approximately 8–10 mm from the cutting edge, with a wavy pattern along the longitudinal direction. These observations suggest that Nankaitaro Tomotaka and Hosokawa Masanori were made using simpler sword-making techniques compared to Kashu Kiyomitsu.

Production of Culture in the Vernacular Communities: Confucian Beliefs and the Culture of Shame in Japan

Confucianism has been systematized in Japan since the Tokugawa or Edo period. Since then, Confucianism has contributed to culture in Japan. In fact, influence of the teachings of Confucianism on contemporary Japanese culture is noteworthy. This research therefore examines the influence of Confucianism on the contemporary Japanese society. It employs descriptive-qualitative research methods. All the data was collected through literature. Findings show that Confucianism has influenced contemporary Japanese politics primarily through the Samurai code of ethics or Bushido. Bushido values and morals are applied not only by the Samurai but has become a national code of ethics. The teachings that became national moral values have gradually transformed Japan into a politically stable country. As a result, Confucius' lessons on shame have also influenced the political culture of Japan. Confucius emphasized the importance of leading and governing individuals through morality and decency, which would instill shame in them and cause them to resign if found corrupt. Confucianism is so ingrained in the Japanese culture that its teachings are taken for granted. Many aspects of the Japanese society, including politics, have been influenced by this integration.

Changes in names in “Sakuteiki” manuscripts and publications from their colophon in Edo Era.

Changes in names in “Sakuteiki” manuscripts and publications from their colophon in Edo Era.

Min Daoyang and his medical works

Min Daoyang, known as Shou Quan Shan Ren, was a traditional Chinese medicine physician in the Xin'an School, from Shexian in the Anhui area during the period of Jiajing and Wanli in the Ming Dynasty. He had many medical books published, such as Yi Zhi Ru Yi Fang Mai, Quan Ying Yao Lan, Yi Xue Ji Yao,Shang Han Zuan Lu, Yi Xue Hui Zuan, Nv Ke Bian Lan, Yao Fang Ge Kuo and Yi Xue Ren Shu Bian Lan. However, currently only three of these books remain. They are Yi Zhi Ru Yi Fang Mai, Quan Ying Yao Lan and Yi Xue Ji Yao. The current version of Yi Zhi Ru Yi Fang Mai was printed in the 4th year of the Gengwu in the Ming Dynasty (1570), and the remains of this version are held in the Wujiang Library. Quan Ying Yao Lan, published in the 6th year of Renshen (1572) in the period of Longqing of the Ming Dynasty, as a complete Jinling version, is now held in the "National Central Library" of Taiwain province. Yi Xue Ji Yao, as a transcript version in the Edo period in Japan, is now held in the Cabinet Library of the National Archives of Japan.

The Japanese Survey of Materia Medica in Korea and the Transformation of the Japanese Study of Nature in the Eighteenth Century

Abstract In the eighteenth century, Japanese honzōgaku developed to engage more actively with an empirical mode of study that put more emphasis on sensory and visual information, complementing the classical texts from China and Korea and correcting the names contained in these texts. The further introduction by honzō scholars of observation and accurate illustration, as well as of the use of material artefacts such as specimens, developed alongside the continued importance of the philological study of the classics, rather than replacing it. Using as primary materials the “Records of Medicinal Ingredients” found among the Documents of the Tsushima Clan, this essay examines a Japanese project to survey flora and fauna in Korea during the Edo period in order to shed light on the growing emphasis on visual accuracy in the study of nature. It also highlights how the circulation of texts inspired changes in how people conceived of natural objects and constructed materia medica knowledge in the context of Tokugawa Japan.

Genetic diversity in the traditional cultivars and wild ancestor of near-threatened Japanese iris (Iris ensata Thunb.)

Wild relatives of cultivars are crucial sources of genetic variation for further enhancement, yet they face potential threats due to contemporary environmental changes. Iris ensata var. spontanea, a wild progenitor of the Japanese iris cultivars (I. ensata var. ensata), is extensively cultivated in Japanese gardens, is distributed across mesic meadows and wetlands in Japan and East Asia. This species is currently threatened owing to habitat loss linked to land use alterations. We assessed genetic diversity and phylogenetic relationships in 32 wild accessions and the 14 principal Edo Group of Japanese iris cultivars, originally bred during the Edo period (1600–1868). In the phylogenetic tree, the cultivars formed a cluster with reduced inbreeding coefficients, suggesting a singular origin and interbreeding between the genetically distinct accessions. Conversely, wild accessions exhibited greater overall genetic diversity and higher inbreeding coefficients than cultivars, indicating frequent inbreeding within divergent natural populations. Our findings highlight the distinct genetic reservoirs of both wild accessions and Edo cultivars, although the former may face inbreeding challenges. Urgent conservation action is needed to ensure the genetic diversity of wild populations as natural resources.

PICTORIAL MAPS AND THE RISE OF MODERN RESORT IN ŌISO IN THE MID-MEIJI PERIOD

This study explores three pictorial maps produced in the mid-Meiji period (1868–1912) featuring Ōiso and the relationship between these maps and the rise of Ōiso as a modern resort. Ōiso was a town located on the highway Tōkaidō connecting Edo (or Tokyo after 1868) and Kyoto. It became a modern seaside resort after the late 1880s. Previous studies on visual and cartographic representations of towns and cities in Japan, for example, Kindai nihon no shikakuteki keiken [Visual experiences of modern Japan] (Nakanishi and Sekido 2008), have already narrowed the analytical focus and shifted away from the metropolises to provincial cities and hot spring towns. However, some questions, such as the social functions of these materials, remain unexplored. This study analyzes three maps and argues that these maps highlight Ōiso as an attractive place, particularly by featuring its villa residents from the high society. Visually, they resemble the conventional meisho zue [pictures of famous places] developed in the Edo period (1603-1867) and share with other city/town maps produced in the Meiji period in showing preferences for bird’s-eye views and emphasizing symbols of modernity such as railroads and electricity. The depiction of villa clusters is a remarkable feature of the three maps. However, rather than encouraging actual visits to the villas, the mapmakers – the local shop owners and administrators – achieved in producing these maps as souvenirs and creating a public desire for the lifestyle of high society.

A SONG OF CONTINUITY: KAGURA SECRET SONG AND THE VICENNIAL RENEWAL OF ISE JINGŪ ON THE EVE OF THE MODERN PERIOD

During the transition from the Edo period to the Meiji Restoration, Ise Jingū (Ise Grand Shrine) underwent significant changes due to Westernization and modernization, culminating in the Jingū reformation of 1871. However, in the latter part of the Meiji era, there was a resurgence of interest in restoring ancient rituals and preserving the shrine's core principles. This paper focuses on the pivotal 1889 vicennial renewal at Ise Jingū to understand how shrine priests sustained ritual continuity amidst modernization. Specifically, it examines the sacred music (mikagura) and the kagura secret song (hikyoku) introduced during this ceremony. Mikanagi Kiyonao's writings provide valuable insights into the origins and influences of linguistic and ritual elements. As the 63rd Shikinen Sengū reconstruction ritual approaches in 2033, this paper offers insights into Ise Jingū's resilience.

A Study of the Food Culture of the Edo Period Depicted in Ukiyozhoshi

A Study of the Food Culture of the Edo Period Depicted in Ukiyozhoshi

Unlawful Homicide of Two Ugly and Disabled Victims in a Japanese Tale Based on a True Story

It is extremely rare for an ugly wife to be killed by her husband because of her ugliness. The aim of this study is to draw inferences regarding the treatment of children and women who were disfigured or disabled during the Japanese Edo period. “Shiryo-Gedatsu Monogatari-Kikigaki”, reportage literature based on a true story was analyzed. Yoemon remarried Osugi, and her son Suke was born with an ugly face and unnatural legs. Yoemon hated Suke and urged Osugi to abandon Suke, and in the end, Osugi threw Suke into the river and killed him. Yoemon and Osugi later had a daughter and named her Rui. Rui had a very similar appearance to Suke. Thus, the village people called her Kasane, saying that Suke was reborn. Kasane married Yagoro, who became the second Yoemon. Yoemon disliked Kasane for her ugly appearance, so he killed her by pushing her into the river and continued to take subsequent wives, but each of them died after marriage. After the sixth marriage, his only child, Kiku, was tormented by Kasane’s spirit. About the appearance of Kasane, Kiku said: “The woman named Kasane had black skin, one eye was rotten, her nose was crushed, her mouth was wide, her face was marred with boils, her hands were bent, and one leg was short. She had the appearance of a scary old woman, like I had never seen before.” Through this story, we learn that there has been widespread hatred for children or women with an ugly appearance.

The Genji Changes: From the Album in the Muromachi Period to the Inaka Genji in the Edo period

This paper selects the illustrations from chapter four of The Tale of Genji to display the changes of Japan from Muromachi period to Edo period. It focuses on showing the changes of the media and the techniques the artists applied to meet the demands of the audience in these two periods. For the album from Muromachi period, the author takes a close look at the calligraphy and artsy techniques of the illustrations to emphasize the art achievement of the Japanese court at that time. For the Inaka Genji from the Edo period, the author analyses the illustrations that were mostly finished in a short period, which provides a brief overview for the peasants and other lower classes an overview of the whole chapter. This work shows the pivotal role that media played in the spread of The Tale of Genji in the Japanese literacy world.

미토번(水戶藩) 교토 체류 인력의 운용과 조정(朝廷)

The relationship between Tokugawa Nariaki and the imperial court, especially with Takatsukasa Masamichi, the real power of the court around the time when Tokugawa Japan’s opening, has received attention as a premise for the emperor’s political emergence. However, examination of Nariaki’s movements in the period before his retirement as the lord of Mito (1829-1844) has so far been insufficient. In the Tokugawa Era, the contact points between the Mito Family and the court were diverse, and many of the expatriates of the Mito Domain stayed in Kyoto. In this paper, I paid attention to the movements of the expatriates of the Mito Domain. Particularly, the review focused on the role of Kawase Noritaka, The Mito Samurai, who received great trust from Nariaki. Noritaka stayed in Kyoto for about four years during this period and belonged to the Nijo Family and then the Takatsukasa Family. Both of these Coutiers’ wives were the sister of Nariaki. This paper first outlines Noritaka’s career and the circumstances in which he came to reside in Kyoto. I looked at the composition of the expatriates of the Mito Domain in Kyoto at the time, and looked into what their daily work was like in Kyoto. Nextly, I reviewed the major tasks performed by Noritaka during his time as a member of the Nijo Family. Lastly, a particularly detailed review was conducted on the process of sending Hananoi, Mito’s senior maidservant who had a strained relationship with Nariaki and her mother Eisoin, to become the Takatsukasa Family’s maidservant.

에도시대 두창의 예방과 치료: 인두법의 수용을 중심으로

This paper explores the introduction of smallpox variolation (人痘法) as a means of addressing the smallpox epidemic during the Edo period in Japan. It also investigates the impact of smallpox variolation on Japanese society during the late Edo period. I begin by outlining the history of smallpox epidemics in Japan. Subsequently, I document the process of introducing and developing smallpox variolation, which was considered a valuable preventive measure against smallpox during that period. While smallpox variolation was introduced in the mid-18th century, it took about half a century for the practice to be effectively implemented. Several physicians attempted variolation during this period, but Ogata Shunsaku (緖方春朔) was renowned as the first to succeed on a large scale, particularly with children. He authored works such as “Shutohissunben (種痘必順辨)” to advocate for the effectiveness of variolation. Additionally, rather than simply adopting the Chinese method of variolation, he developed his own method that took into consideration Japan's unique climate and environment, hoping to enhance the efficacy of variolation. During that time, the prevailing response to the smallpox epidemic focused on diagnosis and treatment using medicine rather than variolation. While Ogata Shunsaku actively practiced variolation, the shogunate established an institution within the medical department tasked with the prevention and treatment of smallpox. This institution propagated the Ikeda-ryu (池田流) method, which specialized in diagnosing and treating smallpox. Despite disparities in approaches, competition between smallpox prevention and treatment catalyzed the accumulation of relevant medical knowledge and experience in Japan during the early 19th century. Initially, variolation was introduced from China; however, over time, researchers experimented with it in various ways, integrating knowledge from Rangaku (蘭學) and cowpox inoculation (牛痘法). Responding to academic and technical developments, Ranpoi (蘭方醫) made diverse attempts at variolation that served as precursors to the eventual adoption of cowpox inoculation. Examining the process of variolation’s introduction and implementation elucidates the characteristics of early 19th-century Japanese medicine that transcended disciplinary boundaries.

An Overview of the Japanese Translations (Japanese Reprints) of Huang Di Nei Jing in the Edo Period

Please refer to the URL that includes this article for the abstract.

Translating oral effects in East Asia: an Edo period version of Romance of the Three Kingdoms

This paper investigates how Konan Bunzan 湖南文山 confronted the issue of oral effects in the 17 th-century translation Tsūzoku sangokushi 通俗三國志 , a widely-read Japanese serialization of Luo Guanzhong’s 羅貫中 14 th-century Romance of the ThreeKingdoms. Despite being a famed written work, belonging to the ‘Four classic Chinese novels’ (si da qishu 四大奇書 ), Luo’s novel contains numerous oral elements which emulate domestic storytelling culture. The fecundity of the text for orality studies is thus apparent. In examining how the oral effects in Luo’s text were changed in translation into Japanese, I first use Idema’s model of the six markers of ‘the storyteller’s manner’ to evaluate how oral effects are mostly lost in translation, paying attention to certain aspects which are omitted over others. Second, I prove that certain oral elements, such as the inclusion of poems in parallel prose into the narrative, undergo less significant changes. Finally, I assess the usefulness of Idema’s framework beyond its original Sinological context, evaluating its applicability to Tsūzoku sangokushi.

Historical trend of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in a sediment core from Osaka Bay during the Meghalayan

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are produced by incomplete combustion of biomass and fossil fuel, yet PAHs have been rarely analyzed in coastal sediment cores as a tracer for human activities before industrialization. The aim of this study was to assess if the historical trend of PAHs can be related to past human activities. To this end, we have determined the concentrations of PAHs in a 9 m-long sediment core from Osaka Bay, which records history of the last 2400 years. The concentration of PAHs before the beginning of the 17th century CE, the beginning of the peaceful Edo period, was consistently low (<100 ng g−1) and mainly comprised of smoke-derived PAHs reflecting the natural background. A relative higher abundance of 4−6 ring PAHs from the early 17th century CE and a higher PAH concentration from the early 18th century CE until approximately 1800 CE agreed with a population increase, Cu smelting activities and increasing combustion of charcoal. The constant PAH concentration until the late 19th century CE overlapped with a decline in the population in the Osaka area. An increasing PAH concentration from the late 19th century CE marked the beginning of industrialization in the Modern age. The peak in PAH concentration in 1945 CE was likely caused by burning of wooden structures due to air raids on Osaka City. A second peak around 1980 CE indicated the introduction of cleaner energies. We conclude that PAHs in coastal sediment cores can be used to reconstruct past human activities.