Ecosystem Services In Protected Areas Research Articles

Sociocultural valuation of ecosystem services in protected areas: A study applied to Southeast Spain

Research background: Protected areas (PAs) play a fundamental role in the maintenance of ecosystem processes and in the flow of ecosystem services (ESs) they provide. However, the management of PAs is complex due to the existence of different stakeholders with disparate and, often, opposed preferences and valuations. The sociocultural assessment of ESs contributes to optimizing the management of scarce resources based on the preferences of the different stakeholders, taking into account the economic, environmental and social dimensions of the analysed area. Purpose of the article: In this work, a sociocultural assessment of the ESs provided by a PA in southeast Spain is carried out. The objective is to identify which the various ESs provided by this PA are and to establish their degree of importance for all the stakeholders involved. Methods: For this, different complementary methodologies have been used in successive phases, both qualitative and quantitative. Specifically, a literature review, in-depth interviews and an assessment questionnaire were used. Findings & value added: Based on the results obtained, a series of measures are proposed to improve the sustainable management of the PA and the socioeconomic development of its environment. The results of this study may be useful for PAs whose management tries to find a balance between conservation measures and the design of models that contribute to the socioeconomic development of their area of influence.

Mobile phone data reveals spatiotemporal recreational patterns in conservation areas during the COVID pandemic

Understanding visitation patterns is crucial in developing effective conservation strategies for protected areas, as it serves as an indicator for operating an ecosystem management plan that balances biodiversity and ecosystem services intertwined with public health and social benefits. However, limited data availability during the COVID-19 pandemic has hindered the comprehensive understanding of temporal changes in realized cultural ecosystem services, particularly in recreational activities within these areas. Our study utilized GPS data from mobile phones to quantify visitor characteristics and their contribution to recreational ecosystem services in protected areas at a national scale during the COVID-19 pandemic. We estimated the pandemic's relative impact on visitor patterns at 98 visitor centers in national parks and Ramsar sites in Japan. The total number of visitors and travel distance in various sizes of protected areas decreased after the outbreak of COVID-19. The number of visitors in the protected areas displayed a quick recovery despite the increasing positive COVID-19 cases during the following summer. Post-pandemic, visitors showed a preference for less densely populated protected areas closer to their home range. Our findings partly suggest that protecting a diverse range of conservation areas along the urban gradient could be an effective strategy for maintaining the resilience of recreational services during a prolonged pandemic.

Spatial pattern and screening framework of national park agglomerations in the Greater Shangri-La region, China

National park agglomerations are a collection of multiple types of regional protected areas, and these agglomerations are of great importance for giving play to the functions of various ecosystem services in protected areas, establishing ecological corridors, and improving the level of regional ecological protection. The Greater Shangri-La region is located at the junction of Sichuan, Yunnan, and Tibet Provinces in China and is in the transition zone of two major biogeographical regions, the Palearctic and Indo-Malay regions, with numerous and rich types of protected areas. This study summarizes the practice of combined national park protection globally, analyzes the spatial pattern of 87 protected areas in the Greater Shangri-La region, proposes a framework for the spatial identification and screening of national park agglomerations based on ecoregions, and establishes the ecosystem, landscape type, cultural heritage, spatial distance, and protection management used as indicators for the screening framework of national park agglomerations. Five national park agglomerations, namely, Three Parallel Rivers, Shaluli Mountain-Daxue Mountain, Southeast Tibetan Plateau, Liangshan Mountain, and Panxi Rift, are present in this area, covering 52 protected areas, with characteristics of spatial agglomeration, diverse types, and natural and cultural heritage-rich features. These results help improve the environmental protection system in the Greater Shangri-La region and better promote the construction of national park agglomerations in other places of the world.

An overview of economic valuation of ecosystem services in protected areas and its roles in achieving Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)

Protected areas (PAs) provide a variety of benefits and services related to human welfare, poverty alleviation, and sustainable development. However, economic valuations of PAs are poorly measured to date. The majority of PAs management policy frameworks are based on biodiversity conservation. The purpose of this overview is to highlight the importance of PAs in achieving Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) by reviewing current and past studies related to the economic value of ecosystem services and the valuation methodologies of PAs at local, regional, and national levels. In addition, the role of PAs in enhancing the sustainability of ecosystem services has been discussed. Furthermore, two case studies related to the ecosystem-economic perspective of PAs; Australia’s Great Barrier Reef and India’s Nagarhole Park, were highlighted. In general, the economic value of PAs is based on the components of ecosystem services, such as provisioning, regulating, supporting, and culture. The management of PAs is critical for valuation of species conservation as one of the standards derived from the ecosystem services. Additionally, it improved the level of financial income of the communities, their educational and health levels, revitalizing local businesses and providing job opportunities through the success of PA’s management strategies as local, national, and international tourist destinations. This review provides a snapshot of the roles of PAs in achieving Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), useful for future researchers, planners, park managers, and policymakers to develop policies for sustainable investment and improvement of PAs.

Continuous growth of human footprint risks compromising the benefits of protected areas on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau

Protected areas (PAs) are the critical societal tool to preserve biodiversity and ecosystem services (ESs), but human disturbances frequently threaten them. Here, we used multiple data sources to map the human footprint as a proxy for identifying the intensity of human activities on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau and therein nature reserves (NRs, the primary category of PAs in China). We found that the human footprint on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau has increased by 22% since 2000, and on average, human pressure inside NRs was 60% lower than outside. However, human pressure was identified in the majority of the NRs, with only 30% of protected land free from any measurable pressure. From a total of 53 NRs, 28 showed over 10% increase in human footprint, and 6 NRs had over 70% of their extent under intense human pressure (human footprint score≥4). Furthermore, a higher proportion of ESs in NRs is subjected to high levels of human pressure and are therefore at risk, particularly soil and water retention. The applied regression model revealed that large NRs are more resilient to human pressure than NRs with the longer establishment. The continuous human footprint increase may hinder the current and future ESs supply. Our analysis shows evidence-based results to promote the mitigation of human pressures in PAs. • The human footprint in the Tibetan Plateau has increased by 22% since 2000. • Human pressure was prevalent across many PAs. • Larger PAs are more resilient to human pressure. • A higher proportion of ESs in PAs is subjected to high levels of human pressure.

Remotely sensed effectiveness assessments of protected areas lack a common framework: A review

AbstractEffective protected areas reflect socio‐ecological values, such as biodiversity and habitat maintenance, as well as human well‐being. These values, which safeguard ecosystem services in protected areas, are treated as models for the sustainable preservation and use of resources. While there is much research on the effectiveness of protected areas in a variety of disciplines, the question is whether there is a common framework that uses remote sensing methods. We conducted a qualitative and a quantitative analysis of 44 peer‐reviewed scientific papers utilizing remote sensing data in order to examine the effectiveness of protected areas. Very few studies to date have a wide or even a global geographical focus; instead, most quantify the effectiveness of protected areas by focusing on local‐scale case studies and single indicators such as forest cover change. Methods that help integrate spatial selection approaches, to compare a protected area's characteristics with its surroundings, are increasingly being used. Based on this review, we argue for a multi‐indicator‐based framework on protected area effectiveness, including the development of a consistent set of socio‐ecological indicators for a global analysis. In turn, this will allow for globally applicable use, including a concrete evaluation that considers the diversity of regional parameters, biome‐specific variables, and political frameworks. Ideally, such a framework will enhance the monitoring and evaluation of global strategies and conventions.

Understanding land use change impacts on ecosystem services within urban protected areas

Protected Areas (PAs) aim at safeguarding biodiversity and cultural values by regulating land use and land cover (LULC) within their boundaries. In the context of different PAs categories, urban planners have the challenge of temporally and spatially understand ecosystem services (ES) supply and demand. To shed light on this issue, we explored ES within two levels of PAs in one of the main cities in a large tropical forest. By analyzing LULC and mapping ES in sustainable use and full protection PAs in São Paulo (Brazil), we investigated the impacts on ES supply and demand resulting from 28 years of LULC changes. In the sustainable use area, we identified urban expansion and the increased pressure on urban parks. In contrast, full protection PAs blocked the urbanization resulted from major undertakings and blocked the urban sprawl to parts of the sustainable use area. We found possible trade-offs between water provision (positively affected) and tourism (negatively affected) in response to the loss of pasture and between water provision (negatively affected) and local climate regulation, and tourism (positively affected) associated with the increase in agriculture. Our study reveals that conservation targets for PAs decisions should address trade-offs among ES as a result of LULC changes derived from surrounding projects and associated interventions.

The effect of wildfire and land-cover changes on the economic value of ecosystem services in Mount Carmel Biosphere Reserve, Israel

The contribution of ecosystem services (ES) to human wellbeing relies on the ecosystem’s ability to supply ES. Managing the pressures affecting ES in protected areas can enhance ES value over time. Our objective was to estimate the change in ES values in a heterogenous Biosphere Reserve (BR) affected by land-cover changes, in Mount Carmel, Israel. The methodology included ES valuation and scenarios analysis that integrated both – the biophysical attributes representing ES stock and the market prices representing ES benefits. The results show that food provisioning services and water quantity regulation make the highest contribution to ES value (17 million and 16 million USD, respectively, per 26,600 hectares). Additionally, land restoration scenarios enhanced ES values by 30–50%, despite wildfires and land cover changes that affected the ecosystems. In severe drought conditions, alternative water resources were able to conserve only the value of the provisioning services, whereas the estimate of the regulating services decreased, mainly due to natural land degradation. In order to enhance ecosystems and ES, croplands and grasslands should be managed to maximize their ES potential. The integration of similar research methods in future studies can support land-management decisions, increase ES stock and the contribution of ES to human wellbeing.

Using mobile phone data to examine weather impacts on recreational ecosystem services in an urban protected area

Mobile phone big data can offer new opportunities for identifying weather impacts on recreational ecosystem services in protected areas. This could be useful to assess how climate change could affect recreational ecosystem services. To explore these opportunities, we utilize mobile phone data and examine impacts of tropical weather (temperature, rainfall, and wind) and holidays on visitor numbers and stay time in an urban protected area in Singapore. These impacts were analyzed by visitors’ home regions and ethnic groups as well. The study results showed that rising temperatures below 31.7 °C had positive impacts on visitor numbers, in contrast to the common perception that cooler temperatures would be always preferred for outdoor activities in a tropical region. Meanwhile, these rising temperatures reduced visitor stay time in the protected area. Rain and wind had limited impacts on visitors. Compared to the weather variables, holidays had bigger impacts on visitors, particularly the Chinese group and those visitors living not close to the protected area. The study results highlight several advantages of mobile phone data application to analyzing weather impacts on public use of urban protected areas.

Mapping understory invasive plant species with field and remotely sensed data in Chitwan, Nepal

Monitoring invasive species distribution and prevalence is important, but direct field-based assessment is often impractical. In this paper, we introduce and validate a cost-effective method for mapping understory invasive plant species. We utilized Landsat imagery, spectral mixture analysis (SMA) and a maximum entropy (Maxent) modeling framework to map the spatial extent of Mikania micrantha in Chitwan National Park, Nepal and community forests within its buffer zone. We developed a spectral library from reference and image sources and applied multiple endmember SMA (MESMA) to selected Landsat imagery. Incorporating the resultant green vegetation and shade fractions into Maxent, we mapped the distribution of understory M. micrantha in the study area, with training and testing Area under Curve (AUC) values around 0.80, and kappa around 0.55. In vegetated places, especially mature forests, an increase in green vegetation fraction and decrease in shade fraction was associated with higher likelihood of M. micrantha presence. In addition, the inclusion of elevation as a model input further improved map accuracy (AUC around 0.95; kappa around 0.80). Elevation, a surrogate for distance to water in this case, proved to be the determining factor of M. micrantha's distribution in the study area. The combination of MESMA and Maxent can provide significant opportunities for understanding understory vegetation distribution, and contribute to ecological restoration, biodiversity conservation, and provision of sustainable ecosystem services in protected areas.

Social media photo content for Sierra Nevada: a dataset to support the assessment of cultural ecosystem services in protected areas

This dataset provides crowd-sourced and georeferenced information useful for the assessment of cultural ecosystem services in the Sierra Nevada Biosphere Reserve (southern Spain). Data were collected within the European project ECOPOTENTIAL focused on Earth observations of ecosystem services. The dataset comprises 778 records expressing the results of the content analysis of social media photos published in Flickr. Our dataset is illustrated in this data paper with density maps for different types of information.

Social media photo content for Sierra Nevada: a dataset to support the assessment of cultural ecosystem services in protected areas

This dataset provides crowd-sourced and georeferenced information useful for the assessment of cultural ecosystem services in the Sierra Nevada Biosphere Reserve (southern Spain). Data were collected within the European project ECOPOTENTIAL focused on Earth observations of ecosystem services. The dataset comprises 778 records expressing the results of the content analysis of social media photos published in Flickr. Our dataset is illustrated in this data paper with density maps for different types of information.

Modelling Natural Capital: A Proposal for a Mixed Multi-criteria Approach to Assign Management Priorities to Ecosystem Services

Investment in natural capital is increasingly necessary and urgent considering the increasing loss of global bio- diversity and the associated social and economic losses. Ecosystem services are tools for quantifying the stock of natural capital and there is great concern about their assessment and valuation. However, there remains a substantial gap between the large amount of information available about ecosystem services and the information required to support decisions and this undermines the efficiency of their management. Multi-criteria analysis techniques can be very useful to efficiently develop decision-making processes to properly channel investment and optimize the costs associated with conservation. This paper proposes an innovative mixed methodology for multi-criteria analysis to assign priorities to ecosystem services in protected areas in terms of importance and vulnerability. The model was applied by a group of experts to prioritize 20 ecosystem services in the Ordesa and Monte Perdido National Park. In order to collect and analyze the individual valuations, a mixed method of Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) and Goal Programming (GP) was used, and to aggregate the valuation criteria, a Joint Relevance Index (JRI) was used, which presents the relative importance of each service in an aggregated way. The results show that conservation policies should be primarily directed towards life-cycle maintenance and water conditions. Depending on the vulnerability of the services, conservation policies should be channeled towards provisioning services related to wild animals and wild plants. Considering the relative importance of services in the park, priority should be oriented to life-cycle maintenance, water conditions and intellectual interaction with the environment.

Recreational ecosystem services in protected areas: A survey of visitors to Natura 2000 sites in Italy

The demand for enjoyable recreational environments is growing. At the same time, the increase of urban areas and intensively managed agricultural areas are deemed major threats to ecosystem services provision. Therefore, protected areas are becoming increasingly important for providing recreational ecosystem services. In this study, we analysed visitors’ profiles from on-site surveys at 10 Natura 2000 sites in different Italian regions. We gathered information on recreational activities, behaviour, expenditure, satisfaction of the visitors, and knowledge of Natura 2000. Predominant recreational activities were hiking, cycling, and wine and food tasting. Mean daily expenditure per visitor amounted to 48.56 €. The level of satisfaction with site-specific facilities and features was generally high, whereas knowledge about the Natura 2000 network was scarce. In the light of the visitors’ behaviour, we identified three main types of visitors: the regional excursionist, the local recreationist, and the sportive tourist. The presented findings provide useful insights for Natura 2000 site management and related recreational ecosystem services as well as for guiding visitor management. Management implicationsOur survey reveals several aspects related to recreational visits of protected areas, which are important for managing ecosystems and visitors:•The revealed main recreational activities can help to improve the recreational opportunities or visitor management.•Estimation of visitor expenditure indicates economic benefits at the local level.•Visitor types describe visitor behaviour and can guide the promotion of the sites.•Suggestions of the respondents for improving the recreational quality of the sites include more initiatives, guided tours and information, as well as the improvement of the roads and the signage system.

Low-cost strategies for protecting ecosystem services and biodiversity

The selection of priority areas for nature conservation must balance the costs and benefits of conserving biodiversity, protecting ecosystem services, and permitting human activities or resource use. In this study, we selected priority areas for conservation in a seasonally dry tropical forest in Brazil and analyzed changes in the protection of ecosystem services and the conservation of plant biodiversity upon excluding areas with high opportunity costs (e.g., where income would be lost if natural areas were protected) and high population density. We identified two types of protected areas: sustainable use (SU) and strict protection (SP). Plant biodiversity (181 species) and supporting services (water balance, net primary productivity, and soil fertility) were used to determine the optimal locations of both types of protected areas. Provisioning services (water supply, fodder, and genetic resources) were used to determine SU priority areas, while regulating services (water purification, carbon storage, and erosion prevention) were used to determine SP areas. The selection of lowly populated or costly areas was associated with a small decrease in the representation of biodiversity (4% loss in SP and 6% loss in SU) and a large decrease in the representation of supporting (36% loss in SP and 31% loss in SU), regulating (41% loss in SP), and provisioning services (7% loss in SU). Our results reveal that selecting priority areas with low population density and low opportunity costs would decrease the overall representation of ecosystem services in protected areas but would still improve the cost efficiency of biodiversity conservation efforts.

Operationalising ecosystem services for effective management of protected areas: Experiences and challenges

Protected areas are crucial for biodiversity conservation and the provision of ecosystem services (ES), but management efforts seem not to be sufficient. To increase management effectiveness, the ES framework offers new promising environmental governance instruments, however, the operational use is still poorly integrated in the management of protected areas. This study used a framework designed for Natura 2000 sites for effective management of protected areas by valorising ES. This framework was applied to 21 study sites in Italy, and 55 ES were quantified in biophysical and monetary terms. Forty-one payments for ecosystem services (PES) were implemented in a participatory process involving local communities and stakeholders. Assessment of the management effectiveness before and after the implementation of PES demonstrated that integrating ES into the management of protected areas can improve their management effectiveness and contribute to regional development through PES. Based on the authors’ experiences, the study highlights various difficulties and opportunities related to ES assessment, implementation of PES, stakeholder engagement, and monitoring of management effectiveness. It also discusses general challenges related to the operationalisation of ES in protected areas, providing recommendations for science and practice.

Biodiversity attracts visitors to national parks

To cope with the funding constraints of biodiversity protection, nature-based tourism, which is regarded as an important ecosystem service, is considered as an option for creating revenues for biodiversity conservation. Here we show that Finnish national parks (NPs) with high biodiversity values are more attractive for visitors than parks with lower biodiversity values, providing evidence on the direct linkage between biodiversity protection and the provisioning of ecosystem services in protected areas. We found that the number of visits NPs received annually, i.e., their attractiveness, was positively associated with the number of Natura2000 habitat types and occurrences of species considered threatened in Finland according to the International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) Red List Categories and Criteria. Interestingly, recreational use also overlapped spatially with areas containing high biodiversity values: the number of occurrences of threatened species and Natura2000 habitat types were on average higher close to recreational routes than among randomly picked control areas within NPs. Our results emphasise the need for careful planning and park management in protecting biodiversity in NPs. However, these connections between biodiversity and recreational use of NPs are striking examples of “biophilia”, the human need for and love for nature, and can be used to engage the public more strongly with biodiversity issues.

Economic valuation of ecosystem services in protected areas: A case study from Nepal

The research examines the value of ecosystem services in Baghmara Buffer Zone Community Forest of Nepal determining willingness of local users and tourists for sustainable management and conservation of natural resources as well as recreational and aesthetic services, during September of 2010. The contingent valuation survey was administered to 95 users and 100 tourists. For users, the distance to forest, family size, nature of residence, gender and size of land holding seem to be the prominent factors that affected upon their willingness to pay. The projected average willingness to pay by all users for recreational and aesthetic services was NRs. 33,347 (about US$ 460) per year. The tourists were divided into domestic and international to elicit willingness to pay for ecosystem services. The responses were found varied according to the nature of tourists. For domestic tourists, income was only factor that affected their willingness to pay, but for international tourists along with income, gender, travel group and education were major determinants of willingness to pay. The average projected willingness to pay by all tourists was US$ 3,806,468 per year.The research highlights that the conservation area systems in Nepal has a high potential to generate additional resources against ecosystem services provided additional services to the tourists and a mechanism to tap such contribution. Banko Janakari, Vol. 23, No. 1, Page 42-50 DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.3126/banko.v23i1.9466

Equity implications of marketing ecosystem services in protected areas and rural communities: Case studies from Meso-America

This paper investigates the equity implications of marketing ecosystem services in protected areas and rural communities. We use a three-tiered equity framework to analyse four distinct efforts to commercialise watershed recharge and carbon dioxide fixation by forests in Meso-America. We show that project development and participation are strongly mediated by organisational networks, as well as existing rights of access over land and forest resources. We demonstrate that procedural fairness diverges strongly when initiatives are implemented in protected areas or in rural communities. While in the former reserve managers and intermediaries concentrate all decision-making power, initiatives working with rural communities are able to integrate more significantly service providers in management decisions. Marketing ecosystem services in protected areas contributes to reduce expenditure rates for protected area management, but also results in less equitable outcomes, as rural communities and forest resource users become excluded from receiving sustained development benefits. When ecosystem services are commercialised by rural farmers, payments do not cover opportunity costs but act as a significant incentive for participation in most cases. Ecosystem service providers also benefit from complementary project activities, such as forest management training and agricultural extension support. We argue that limited economic impact and existing inequities in decision-making and outcomes can be explained by problems of institutional design, in particular the inability of markets and payments for ecosystem services to account for context-related factors, such as property rights.