Ecosystem-based Adaptation Strategies Research Articles

A Framework for Monitoring the Effectiveness of Ecosystem-Based Adaptation Strategies Using Internet of Things and Machine Learning Techniques

Climate change poses a threat to the global ecosystem. Many countries adopt various approaches, including ecosystem-based adaptation (EbA), to address this problem. However, the assessment of the effectiveness of the EbA interventions is conducted manually, is resource-intensive, and is focused on short-term outputs. These limitations underscore a critical gap: the need for a comprehensive, automated system that enables long-term monitoring and predictive analysis. This study aimed to address this gap by developing an innovative framework that integrates Internet of Things (IoT) devices and machine learning (ML) algorithms to continuously monitor weather, hydrological, environmental, and other variables. We conducted a thorough analysis to design an appropriate framework. In addition, to obtain the relevant information and data, we conducted interviews with the local community and collected secondary data from various sources. The proposed framework consists of five layers: (i) EbA interventions; (ii) IoT-based key performance indicators (KPI) for monitoring and evaluation (M&E); (iii) primary data collection; (iv) data storage; and (v) application. As a proof of concept, we developed a system that supports early flood and drought alerts while simultaneously providing long-term evaluations of the effectiveness of EbA strategies. The developed system consists of IoT devices and a web application integrated with machine learning (ML). We set up and tested the IoT devices before deploying them in the study area. The devices capture data for two primary purposes: (1) short-term: flood detection and alerting, and (2) long-term: drought prediction and evaluation of EbA effectiveness through continuous data analysis. This research represents a significant advancement in the automation and long-term assessment of climate adaptation measures, offering a scalable and effective solution to disaster risk reduction.

“If the mangroves disappear, so will San Crisanto — that’s how big the risk is”: Wetlands of a Coastal Lagoon Ecosystem and Local Adaptation to Climate Change

The Yucatan coast (Mexico) contains Ramsar sites of socioecological importance, but also faces problems, such as hurricanes, that increase its vulnerability. The frequency and magnitude of these threats increased, partly due to climate change, necessitating strengthened local adaptation strategies that incorporate the socioecological context and needs of wetland inhabitants. Thus, this study’s objective was to analyze responses to climate change by members of the port town San Crisanto (Yucatan) to learn about their perceptions and the actions they take when faced with hurricanes and their impacts. The study used a qualitative phenomenological methodology, working with 23 participants who witnessed three intense hydrometeorological events. As an ejido (unit of communal land tenure) in possession of land and resources, its members maintain the mangroves and manage them as a strategy of Ecosystem-based Adaptation (EbA). They support their actions with local socioecological knowledge of their territory and place-based attachment to the lagoon ecosystem that provides their livelihoods, but there also persist several practices requiring attention, such as filling floodable areas with waste, which damages the local population and ecosystem. We conclude that the ejido collective is relevant to ecosystem protection and recommend that EbA strategies be documented and strengthened in order to tend to the human population and the wetlands themselves in the face of climate change.

Climate Change Impacts on Wildlife Protected Areas in Southern Africa: a Bibliometric Analysis

The article examines how climate change has impacted wildlife-protected areas in Southern Africa in the context of tourism development. Protected areas are known as preferred destinations for nature-loving tourists. Using a systematic review and bibliometric analysis the authors identify symptoms of climate change in Southern Africa’s wildlife-protected areas and adaptation strategies for resilient destinations. Some of the key effects of climate change identified in the analysis include species reduction, human-wildlife conflicts, habitat quality and infrastructure modification and social impacts. The authors establish at what levels changing climatic conditions in protected areas affect conservation and tourism processes in protected areas thus contributing to the body of knowledge on wildlife-human interactions, survival strategies of community members and interactions between community members and conservation organizations. The synthesized data can be used in future studies to focus on climate-proofing protected areas and surrounding communities, can help social enterprises and conservation groups to improve community resilience against climate change and inform conservation ecosystem-based adaptation strategies.

Shoreline Change Analysis of the Eastern Coast of Ghana between 1991 and 2020

The Eastern Coastline of Ghana is facing intense natural and anthropogenic disturbances, which pose a serious threat to the coastal community, ecosystem, and livelihoods. This study assessed the shoreline changes occurring along the Eastern Coast of Ghana stretching 149 km from Laloi Lagoon West of Prampram to Aflao, Ghana. The study utilizes satellite images from Landsat 4TM, Landsat 7 ETM+, and Landsat 8 OLI taken between 1991 and 2020. Data pre-processing techniques using ENVI 5.3 included calibration, layer stacking, mosaicking, and supervised classification. Post-classification shorelines were extracted using ArcGIS 10.7, and the DSAS tool was used to determine the rate of change over the 29-year period. The results showed that the coastline experienced an average erosion rate of 9 m/y and a maximum rate of 24 m/y, however, the accretion rate (3 m/y) was much lower, reflecting general coastline retreat. Thus, some 25 coastal communities are highly exposed to shoreline erosion. Sustaining the coastal area may require coastline re-engineering interventions. This study recommends continuous monitoring of the shorelines to ensure the protection of livelihoods. Implementation of both hard engineering and ecosystem-based adaptation strategies may be required to achieve holistic results toward sustainable coastal management.

Socio-Economic Assessment of Ecosystem-Based and Other Adaptation Strategies in Coastal Areas: A Systematic Review

Coastal areas are highly vulnerable to climate-change hazards (e.g., sea-level rise, flooding, coastal erosion), which can lead to significant impacts at the ecosystem and societal level. Interest in ecosystem-based adaptation (EbA) is gaining importance due to its potential multiple benefits, including social and environmental aspects, when compared to more traditional approaches such as hard engineering interventions. When assessing EbA strategies, further understanding of the nature–society functions, processes, values, and benefits is needed to increase its application. This study contributes to better knowledge of EbA and other adaptation strategies by developing a systematic literature review of studies performing socio-economic assessments of climate-change adaptation in coastal areas. The analysis of 54 publications revealed that cost–benefit analysis was applied in most studies, followed by multi-criteria analysis and other techniques. Hybrid adaptation strategies based on different combinations of hard, soft, and EbA interventions were considered as potential optimal solutions in a significant part of the assessments. This study shows some potential co-benefits of EbA, such as livelihood diversification or biodiversity conservation, but also stresses the need for further research on this topic, as well as on evaluating how EbA performs in the long term under changing climate-condition scenarios.

Green Urban Infrastructure and the Potential for Offering Ecosystem Services for Climate Adaptation: Land Use Analysis of the Pinheiros District (São Paulo)

Ecosystem services (ES) represent various benefits to society, especially those of climate regulation. An increasing number of recommendations are being made so that urban planning internalizes the concept of ES to objectively measure these benefits or for decision making. This paper intends to analyze the role of green infrastructure in urban land use to address the potential for providing climate regulation ES in urban green areas as measures of Ecosystem Based Adaptation (EbA). To this end, it was selected as a case study the land use analysis of the Pinheiros District in São Paulo. This region has a high degree of waterproofing, but has significant green areas and potential space to incorporate the expansion of green infrastructure, i.e., to promote EbA strategies, and consequently the offering of ES. For this purpose, geospatial analysis was used with the technical subsidies of a methodology proposed to measure the capacity of different extensions of vegetation coverage to promote ES regulation. The application showed that one of the district's four sub-districts revealed an existing and greater potential to mitigate climate change effects than the other three sub-districts. This discussion is considered timely given the recently released 2021 Climate Action Plan for the Municipality of São Paulo. The results of the work can be considered by public managers and decision makers on the role of urban green areas and their potential for climate adaptation.

Rediscovering South Africa: Flood disaster risk management through ecosystem-based adaptation

The emergence of ecosystem-based adaptation (EbA) has created a shift from the conventional adaptation approaches often accompanied by high costs, including conflicting interests associated with the dense urban fabric and inflexibility. Therefore, EbA presents a potential for more comprehensive, cost-efficient, multifunctional and multidimensional measures in flood disaster risk management. Essentially, EbA integrates biodiversity and ecosystem services as an approach to climate change adaptation and disaster risk reduction. This study adopts descriptive and exploratory analytical approaches aimed at assessing the trends of flood events in South Africa and their potential risk management through EbA. The study reveals that between 1959 and 2019, several major floods have occurred, resulting in losses of life and livelihoods and significant infrastructure damages among others. Recovery has taken years and needed continuous investment. Unfortunately, many communities have not been able to “bounce back/bounce forward”, despite all these efforts. This study revealed that EbA strategies can be instituted regionally and nationally to offer efficient flood disaster adaptation or mitigation in flood-prone areas. In general, utilising EbA can stabilise or reduce flood impacts, minimise environmental impacts and damages associated with flood disasters by developing innovative EbA strategies. Therefore, the study recommends an increased awareness of EbA strategies to enhance universal adoption in ameliorating flood risk.

Climate Change Community-Based and Ecosystem-Based Adaptation Strategies in Selected Coastal Barangays in Masinloc, Zambales, Philippines

Climate change continues to intensify existing disaster risks and vulnerabilities in the Philippines. Thus, implementation of climate change adaptation strategies is vital to counter the effects of climate change. It is in this context that this study was undertaken to analyze the need or urgency to adopt community and ecosystem-based adaptation strategies among selected coastal barangays (villages) of Masinloc, Zambales, Philippines. Various methods of data collection were utilized such as secondary data collection, primary data collection through household survey, key informant interviews, and focus group. Results of the study indicate that in terms of community-based adaptation strategies, all of the seven barangays in Masinloc have moderate necessity. However, only Barangays Bani and Collat have high adaptation capacity in terms of infrastructure and disaster preparedness. The execution of several community-based adaptation strategies helps these barangays to respond immediately and appropriately to the moderate risk posed by floods and storm surges. On the other hand, in terms of ecosystem-based adaptation strategies, all of the seven barangays have moderate necessity which implies that they have moderate vulnerability and risk to flood and storm surge but have high adaptation capacity in terms of the conservation and protection of coastal resources (mangroves and sea grasses). The barangays implemented the necessary ecosystem-based adaptation mechanisms that they might need in the future. This only means that when they are faced with disaster, the local communities are prepared to respond appropriately and to cope up with the effects of extreme weather events which lead to floods and storm surge. Even though most of the ecosystem-based adaptation strategies are conducted by the seven barangays, there are several community-based adaptation strategies that are still lacking which will protect them from the effect of floods and storm surges. Hence, carrying out the missing adaptation strategies, both community-based and ecosystem-based, will help in improving the adaptive capacity of the affected barangays and will help them become more resilient to the amplified effects of climate change.

Ecosystem-Based Adaptation to Protect Avian Species in Coastal Communities in the Greater Niagara Region, Canada

Coastal communities are increasingly vulnerable to climate change and its effects may push coastal ecosystems to undergo irreversible changes. This is especially true for shorebirds with the loss of biodiversity and resource-rich habitats to rest, refuel, and breed. To protect these species, it is critical to conduct research related to nature-based Solutions (NbS). Through a scoping review of scientific literature, this paper initially identified 85 articles with various ecosystem-based adaptation (EbA) strategies that could help conserve shorebird populations and promote ecotourism. Of these 85 articles, 28 articles had EbA strategies that were examined, with some like coral reefs and mangroves eliminated as they were inappropriate for this region. The scoping review identified four major EbA strategies for the Greater Niagara Region with living shorelines and beach nourishment being the most suitable, especially when combined. These strategies were then evaluated against the eight core principles of nature-based solutions protecting shorebird as well as human wellbeing. Living shoreline strategy was the only one that met all eight NbS principles. As the coastline of the region greatly varies in substrate and development, further research will be needed to decide which EbA strategies would be appropriate for each specific area to ensure their efficacy.

Regional characterisation of meteorological drought and floods over west Africa

West Africa is characterised by diverse hydro-climatic divisions ranging from the humid equatorial climate to the semi-arid and arid climates that manifest in high space–time variability in rainfall. In this study, drought and floods in six delineated domains (Northern Sahel, Southern Sahel, Sudanian, Western Guinea Coast, Central Guinea Coast and Eastern Guinea Coast) of West Africa were illustrated using the Standardized Precipitation Index (SPI 3 months and 9 months) calculated from global CPC Merged Analysis of precipitation (CMAP 2.5° by 2.5° resolution) data from 1980 to 2017. The trend analysis shows that none of the domains exhibits a significant trend in the computed SPI. However, there is a significant trend in the annual rainfall rate for all the domains except the Eastern Guinea Coast. Again, there is a likelihood of an increasing trend of SPI-3 but a decreasing trend for the SPI-9. The drier areas have significant increasing rainfall trend while the highly humid regions show significant negative trend except for the Eastern Guinea Coast that shows a non-significant very weak positive trend. The most exposed area to extreme drought conditions occurs over the northern Sahel domain at SPI-3 though the frequency of occurrence is very low. The Western Guinea coast experiences the highest number of dry events of about 32% of the time followed by the Northern Sahel domain. Under SPI-9, the following domains: Eastern Guinea coast, Sudanian, Northern Sahel and Western Guinea coast are prone to flooding incidence as they had 40%, 37%, 29% and 26% of wet events, respectively. The study recommends apt and timely climate service delivery, adoption of ecosystem-based adaptation strategies that promote apt and sustainable water management practices in the region.

Investigating the spatially heterogeneous relationships between climate factors and NDVI in China during 1982 to 2013

Climate change is a major driver of vegetation activity, and thus their complex processes become a frontier and difficulty in global change research. To understand this relationship between climate change and vegetation activity, the spatial distribution and dynamic characteristics of the response of NDVI to climate change were investigated by the geographically weighted regression (GWR) model during 1982 to 2013 in China. This model was run based on the combined datasets of satellite vegetation index (NDVI) and climate observation (temperature and moisture) from meteorological stations nationwide. The results showed that the spatial non-stationary relationship between NDVI and surface temperature has appeared in China: the significant negative temperature-vegetation relationship was located in Northeast, Northwest and Southeast China, while the positive correlation was more concentrated from southwest to northeast. By comparing the normalized regression coefficients from GWR model for different climate factors, it presented the regions with moisture dominants for NDVI were in North China and the Tibetan Plateau, and the areas of temperature dominants were distributed in East, Central and Southwest China, where the annual mean maximum temperature accounted for the largest areas. In addition, regression coefficients from GWR model between NDVI dynamics and climate variability indicated that the higher warming rate could result in the weakened vegetation activity through some mechanisms such as enhanced drought, while the moisture variability could mediate the hydrothermal conditions for the variation of vegetation activity. When the increasing rate of photosynthesis exceeded that of respiration, the positive correlation between vegetation dynamics and climate variability was reflected. However, the continuous and dynamic process of vegetation activity response to climate change will be determined by spatially heterogeneous conditions in climate change and vegetation cover. Furthermore, the dynamic description of climate-induced vegetation activity from its rise to decline in different regions is expected to provide a scientific basis for initiating ecosystem-based adaptation strategies in response to global climate change.

The social–ecological dimension of vulnerability and risk to natural hazards

The impacts of natural hazards on local communities are increasing worldwide and are projected to rise further due to urban expansion and climate change. To address these threats, a large amount of literature has characterized and assessed the physical, social, economic and institutional dimensions of disaster risk. However, much less attention has been paid to the social–ecological dimension of vulnerability and risk. The lack of consideration of this dimension represents a major knowledge gap, especially when considering that environmental degradation is regarded as one of the primary drivers of risk to natural hazards worldwide. While the international community advocates for the restoration of ecosystems as an important strategy for disaster risk reduction, the relationship between environmental health, vulnerability and risk of populations is often overlooked in vulnerability and risk assessment, a precondition for the design and implementation of effective ecosystem-based adaptation strategies. Possible explanations for this gap are: (1) the contradictory results on the role of ecosystem health in determining risk of local communities; (2) the poor theoretical framing of the social–ecological dimension of vulnerability and risk to natural hazards; or (3) the lack of clarity regarding how to assess this dimension of risk. This paper addresses potential reasons (2) and (3). It first reviews the available literature related to social–ecological drivers of vulnerability and risk of local communities exposed to natural hazards. Second, it discusses and provides a definition of social–ecological vulnerability and risk. Third, it reviews assessment methods and, finally, it suggests an improved conceptual framework that illustrates the main interactions between natural hazards, the ecosystem and the social system.

Local Ecological Knowledge on Climate Change and Ecosystem-Based Adaptation Strategies Promote Resilience in the Middle Zambezi Biosphere Reserve, Zimbabwe.

Understanding local community perceptions on impacts, causes, and responses to climate change is vital for promotion of community resilience towards climate change. This study explored local ecological knowledge (LEK) held by local communities on climate change trends and impacts in the Middle Zambezi Biosphere Reserve (MZBR), Zimbabwe. The objectives of the study were to (i) investigate local community perceptions on trends and causes of climate change, (ii) identify biophysical impacts of climate change at the local level, and (iii) explore the ecosystem-based adaptation strategies towards climate change. The study used a mixed methods approach where a household questionnaire survey (n=320), key informant interviews (n=12), and focus group discussions (n=8) were used to collect data between April 2015 and October 2016. Results from the study show that local communities have observed decreasing rainfall and increasing temperatures as key indicators of climate change. Local communities observed water scarcity, changes in vegetation phenology, livestock and wildlife mortalities, and food shortages due to drought as the major impacts on their livelihoods. LEK can contribute to adaptive management strategies that enhance resilience of socioecological systems (SES) in the face of climate change by providing information on the status and use of biophysical components of the environment and by highlighting potential local adaptation strategies that can sustain key livelihood practices.

Ecosystem-based Adaptation (EbA) practices in smallholder agriculture; emerging evidence from rural Pakistan

Ecosystems and biodiversity provide many critical life support functions including clean water, food, climate regulation, and recreational services. Despite its significant values biodiversity in Pakistan is being lost at a significant rate particularly due to agriculture intensification. The intensive agriculture system leading to serious environmental damages including biodiversity loss, water pollution, soil degradation, disruption of carbon sink and increase in GHG emissions. There is a growing recognition of promoting Ecosystem-based Adaptation (EbA) strategies in smallholder agriculture; however, there is limited information about the existing EbA strategies by smallholder farmers and factors that influence the adoption of these practices. This article addresses research gap by using a survey data of 360 households from three districts of Pakistan. We explored existing EbA practices used by farmers and factors associated with the use of these practices. The list of ecosystem-based adaptation practices (EbA) was created on the basis of literature review and with the assistance of expert opinions. This study identified a number of risks associated with ecosystem degradation as perceived by smallholder farmers such as salinization, water pollution, soil erosion and decline in crop productivity. Due to overexploitation of underground water and extensive use of external inputs for agriculture use, the majority of farmers reported decline in water quality and depth of the underground water table. We used a double hurdle model for adoption and intensity of adaptation practices. The results show that farmers' social capital and institutional access increase the probability and intensity of adoption of EbA practices. The study suggests that a majority of smallholder farmers in Pakistan are already using certain EbA strategies, but there is still scope for larger implementation. Institutional policies and non-government organizations (NGOs) can increase broader use of EbA strategies by facilitating farmers’ access to subsidized tree nurseries, farmer-to-farmer information and promoting EbA policies in different socioeconomic and agro-ecological context.

Adaptación basada en Ecosistemas en pequeñas fincas de granos básicos en Guatemala y Honduras

In Central America maize and beans are usually cultivated by farmers who have small landholdings and live in vulnerable situations. Climate change is an important threat to these smallholder basic grain farmers, putting at risk their production systems and their livelihoods. The use of Ecosystem-based Adaptation (EbA) can help them to adapt to climate change, however there is limited information on the use of EbA. The objective of the present work was to characterize the EbA strategies that smallholder basic grain farmers of four landscapes in Guatemala and Honduras use to increase their resilience to climate change. Using interviews and field measurements in 160 farms, between July 2014 and June 2015, we 1) explored how common the use of different EbA practices is, 2) documented the biophysical characteristics of these practices, and 3) explored if the implementation and characteristics of EbA practices differed among landscapes. Our results indicate that even though they own small land areas (mean maize plot area of ~0.68 ha), have low education levels and low access to technical training and advice, many smallholder basic grain farmers are using EbA practices in their farms. The most common EbA practices were the use of dispersed trees, home gardens and live fences. An ANOVA anlysis indicated significant differences in the use of different EbA practices among farmers, which suggests that farmers adapt practices in response to the social and biophysical conditions where they live. Our study suggests that smallholder basic grain farmers have the experience and the knowledge to use EbA practices and recognize the benefits derived from the implementation of such practices. However, in order to increase use of EbA practices, more technical, financial and political support is needed.

Ecosystem-based climate change adaptation for Essenvelt, Middelburg, The Netherlands

Climate change is an internationally recognised phenomenon generally held accountable for the increasing magnitude of extremes in both climatic events and temperature. With increasing urbanization and the concentration of socio-economic activities in urban areas, the challenge to contend with climate change is particularly pertinent in cities. In response to climate-change impacts, a range of climateadaptation strategies have been developed to make cities increasingly ‘climate proof’. A qualitative research approach is employed to review climate change, its impacts and some adaptation strategies, focusing on ecosystem-based adaptation strategies from Belgium and The Netherlands and Water-Sensitive Urban Design approaches developed in Australia. The article engages a case study of Essenvelt, Middelburg, The Netherlands, where unanticipated warmer night-time temperatures are a primary concern, related to natural variability, the urban heat island effect and climate change. The article proposes certain adaptation measures for Essenvelt, based on the adaptation strategies reviewed. Keywords: Adaptation, climate change, ecosystem-based, water-sensitive urban design, WSUD

Evaluating the cost-effectiveness of ecosystem-based adaptation: Kamiesberg wetlands case study

Ecosystem-based adaptation (EbA) is increasingly being promoted as a cost-effective means of adaptation to climate change. However, in spite of considerable international press, there is still little evidence to substantiate this claim. This study proposes a method through which the cost-effectiveness of EbA strategies can be evaluated against alternative adaptation options, and contributes to South African literature on the subject. The potential cost-effectiveness of wetland restoration is assessed as a means of securing the carrying capacity of land for pastoralist communities of the Kamiesberg communal area in South Africa under projected future climate conditions. The conventional alternatives would be to respond to increasingly dry conditions by drilling boreholes and using supplemental feed for livestock. It was assumed that the EbA interventions would occur upfront, whereas the alternatives are more likely to be implemented in reaction to droughts over a longer time period. The study found the implementation of conventional alternatives to be more cost-effective than EbA as a means to sustaining livestock stocking rates, with EbA being twice as costly. However, this is framed from the perspective of those directly affected (the landowners), and does not include the benefits to broader society.

Cascades of green: A review of ecosystem-based adaptation in urban areas

Climate change impacts increase pressure on challenges to sustainability and the developmental needs of cities. Conventional, “hard” adaptation measures are often associated with high costs, inflexibility and conflicting interests related to the dense urban fabric, and ecosystem-based adaptation (EbA) has emerged as a potentially cost-efficient, comprehensive, and multifunctional approach. This paper reviews and systematises research on urban EbA. We propose an analytical framework that draws on theory from ecosystem services, climate change adaptation and sustainability science. It conceptualises EbA in terms of five linked components: ecological structures, ecological functions, adaptation benefits, valuation, and ecosystem management practices.Our review identified 110 articles, reporting on 112 cities, and analysed them using both quantitative statistical and qualitative content analysis. We found that EbA research in an urban context is fragmented due to different disciplinary approaches and concepts. Most articles focus on heat or flooding, and the most studied ecological structures for reducing the risk of such hazards are green space, wetlands, trees and parks. EbA is usually evaluated in bio-geophysical terms and the use of economic or social valuations are rare. While most articles do not mention specific practices for managing ecological structures, those that do imply that urban EbA strategies are increasingly being integrated into institutional structures. Few articles considered issues of equity or stakeholder participation in EbA.We identified the following challenges for future EbA research. First, while the large amount of data generated by isolated case studies contributes to systems knowledge, there is a lack of systems perspectives that position EbA in relation to the wider socio-economic and bio-geophysical context. Second, normative and ethical aspects of EbA require more thought, such as who are the winners and losers, especially in relation to processes that put people at risk from climate-related hazards. Third, there is room for more forward-looking EbA research, including consideration of future scenarios, experimentation in the creation of new ecological structures and the role of EbA in transformative adaptation.

The role of ecosystems in coastal protection: Adapting to climate change and coastal hazards

Coastal ecosystems, particularly intertidal wetlands and reefs (coral and shellfish), can play a critical role in reducing the vulnerability of coastal communities to rising seas and coastal hazards, through their multiple roles in wave attenuation, sediment capture, vertical accretion, erosion reduction and the mitigation of storm surge and debris movement. There is growing understanding of the array of factors that affect the strength or efficacy of these ecosystem services in different locations, as well as management interventions which may restore or enhance such values. Improved understanding and application of such knowledge will form a critical part of coastal adaptation planning, likely reducing the need for expensive engineering options in some locations, and providing a complementary tool in hybrid engineering design. Irrespective of future climate change, coastal hazards already impact countless communities and the appropriate use of ecosystem-based adaptation strategies offers a valuable and effective tool for present-day management. Maintaining and enhancing coastal systems will also support the continued provision of other coastal services, including the provision of food and maintenance of coastal resource dependent livelihoods.

Ecosystem-based adaptation in marine ecosystems of tropical Oceania in response to climate change.

Tropical Oceania, including Melanesia, Polynesia, Micronesia and northern Australia, is one of the most biodiverse regions of the world. Climate change impacts have already occurred in the region and will become one of the greatest threats to biodiversity and people. Climate projections indicate that sea levels will rise in many places but not uniformly. Islands will warm and annual rainfall will increase and exhibit strong decadal variations. Increases in global atmospheric CO2 concentration are causing ocean acidification, compromising the ability of organisms such as corals to maintain their calcium carbonate skeletons. We discuss these climate threats and their implications for the biodiversity of several ecosystems (coral reefs, seagrass and mangroves) in the region. We highlight current adaptation approaches designed to address these threats, including efforts to integrate ecosystem and community-based approaches. Finally, we identify guiding principles for developing effective ecosystem-based adaptation strategies. Despite broad differences in governance and social systems within the region, particularly between Australia and the rest of the Pacific, threats and planning objectives are similar. Ensuring community awareness and participation are essential everywhere. The science underpinning ecosystem-based adaptation strategies is in its infancy but there is great opportunity for communicating approaches and lessons learnt between developing and developed nations in tropical Oceania.