Ecosystem-based Adaptation Approaches Research Articles

An Assessment of the Ecosystem-Based Adaptation Approach for Flood Risk Management in the Upper Suswa-Magadi Catchment

Flood is a natural disaster that occurs due to the sudden onset of rainfall that causes runoff waters from high altitude areas to low altitude areas. The purpose of the study was to assess ecosystem-based adaptation in flood risk management in the upper Suswa- Magadi catchment. The study used a descriptive research design. Purposive sampling and stratified random sampling methods were used to select three locations of the Upper Suswa-Magadi catchment. These included Suswa, Keekonyokie and Mosiro. The locations had a population of 8,094 households, from which a sample size of 370 was obtained. The study relied on both primary and secondary data. The questionnaires, key informant interviews, and observations were used to collect data. The study concluded that; Community participation in EbA could increase the soil texture, and increased afforestation could help in the absorption of runoff water increasing the infiltration rates of water and causing flash floods. The study recommended the creation of awareness on the EbA measures to curb flash floods which could help the community members to avert the effect of flash floods and encourage the community to participate in the application of EbA measures in order to increase the soil texture, increase afforestation could help in the absorption of runoff water increasing the infiltration rates of water causing a flash flood. This can be done through community-based organizations that easily understands their problems and supports project that will assist them.

Mushrooms in the Mountains: Assessing the Role of Fungi on the Ecosystem-Based Adaptation (EbA) Practices in Nepal Himalaya

To achieve the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), thereby meet the post 2020 global biodiversity targets and increase resilience to climate change, nature-based approaches such as ecosystem-based adaptation (EbA) is suggested as a promising and integrated adaptation strategy. EbA comprises adaptation strategies that value the role of ecosystems in reducing social vulnerability to climate change. Among the different biological groups on earth, fungi play not only an important role to maintain the biogeochemical cycle/nutrient cycle in ecosystems (supporting and regulating services), but also contribute to the socio-economic and cultural benefits of societies (provisioning and cultural services). Here, we present our knowledge and scientific understanding on how these neglected groups of biodiversity-fungi are crucial for ecosystem-based adaptation (EbA) approach based on our field experience, review and associated expertise on caterpillar fungus (Ophiocordyceps sinensis), and other wild mushrooms found in Nepal. Several species of fungi are used by local communities as food, medicines, and environmental income. Fungi are important sources of household income for mountain communities in Nepal providing a cushion during shocks and disasters and supporting food security, health care, education and building shelter. For the holistic EbA approach, it is essential to strengthen local institutions as well as indigenous local knowledge which could be an important policy intervention for the identification, conservation, and sustainable management of ecologically, socially and economically useful fungal species.

Climate change adaptation governance in Nepal: a framework for sustainable generation of adaptation services

Poverty and high dependency of rural and mountainous households on the natural resources of Nepal have made the country more vulnerable to climate change. On the other hand, there is inadequacy of adaptation services provided to the vulnerable households and ecosystems. Responding to climate change necessitates amore consolidated effort and effective implementation interventions from both the government and non-government actors. To help achieve this very essence, this study has aimed to- (i) review the existing climate change adaptation (CCA) practices, processes and patterns of sustainable resource mobilization and benefit sharing, and (ii) develop a framework that ensures sustainability of resources and equitable sharing of services and benefits accrued from CCA. Consultations with the communities, key state and non-state stakeholders both at federal and provincial levels, reviews of national policies, strategies, periodic plans and programs and field visits were carried out to synthesize the information, document the knowledge, and highlight the gaps pertaining to CCA. Qualitative Content Analysis (QCA) was executed for analyzing qualitative information. Recently, the Government of Nepal has developed a priority framework on sustainable resource management and delivery of adaptation services. In line with the eight themes identified by the National Climate Change Policy (NCCP, 2019), the proposed framework has paid central attention on medium and long-term adaptation planning adhered with Ecosystem-based Adaptation (EbA) and Community-based Adaptation (CbA). Building resilience, reducing vulnerability, increasing capacities, enabling environment, and integrating CCA in development planning have been the focus of the framework. It is found that the delivery of adaptation services to the climate vulnerable groups and poor communities is well reached out through CbA and EbA approaches. It is therefore, crucial in strengthening community- and locally-based mechanisms (such as forest-user groups, farmers groups, agricultural and fisheries cooperatives, and community networks) for sustainable management and delivery of services to facilitate effective adaptation.

Ecosystem-based adaptation in Lake Victoria Basin; synergies and trade-offs.

Healthy ecosystems such as forests and wetlands have a great potential to support adaptation to climate change and are the foundation of sustainable livelihoods. Ecosystem-based adaptation (EbA) can help to protect and maintain healthy ecosystems providing resilience against the impacts of climate change. This paper explores the role of EbA in reconciling socio-economic development with the conservation and restoration of nature in Lake Victoria Basin, Kenya, East Africa. Using selected ecosystems in the Lake region, the paper identifies key EbA approaches and explores trade-offs and synergies at spatial and temporal scales and between different stakeholders. The research methods used for this study include site visits, key informant interviews, focus group discussions, participatory workshops and literature reviews. An analytical framework is applied to advance the understanding of EbA approaches and how they lead to synergies and trade-offs between ecosystem services provision at spatial and temporal scales and multiple stakeholders. Our results show that EbA approaches such as ecosystem restoration have the potential to generate multiple adaptation benefits as well as synergies and trade-offs occurring at different temporal and spatial scales and affecting various stakeholder groups. Our paper underscores the need to identify EbA trade-offs and synergies and to explore the ways in which they are distributed in space and time and between different stakeholders to design better environmental and development programmes.

No safety netin the face of climate change: The case of pastoralists in Kunene Region, Namibia.

Over the past decade, pastoralists in Kunene Region, Namibia, have endured recurrent drought and flood events that have culminated in the loss of their primary form of livelihood–pastoralism. Most pastoralists are finding it difficult to sustain their livelihoods, and their communities have fallen into extreme poverty. Ecosystem-based Adaptation (EbA) approaches are increasingly acknowledged as having the potential to enhance the adaptive capacity of vulnerable communities. The first step is to develop an understanding of how affected communities live, their perceptions of and how they respond to climate change and the biophysical impacts of climate change in their communities. This study aims to collect this information in order to explore the use of EbA to help pastoralists adapt to climate change. We examined an isolated pastoral Himba community, to understand their perceptions, experiences and understanding of climate change and its related impacts on their livelihoods. A nested mixed-methods approach using structured interviews was employed to address the study objectives. Interview results revealed that pastoralists lack scientific knowledge of climate change, and they have no access to climate change information. Though pastoralists have coping and adaptation approaches at the community level (such as making gardens, fishing, etc.), these have become ineffective as climatic uncertainty and change persist. Furthermore, pastoralists no longer get benefits from the environment, such as food and fodder. Despite this, there are currently no biodiversity interventions at the community level to address the impacts of climate change. Pastoralists have indicated their adaptation needs, particularly the provision of water supply to grow food. This is an open avenue to explore EbA approaches, specifically ecological restoration, while still addressing the need of the pastoralists. There is an urgent need to develop new practical adaptation strategies, including restoration options that will strengthen their adaptive capacity.

CLIMATE RISKS ASSESSMENT, OPPORTUNITIES RELATED TO THE EVOLUTION OF ECOSYSTEMS AND LIMITATION OF THE PROVISION OF ECOSYSTEM SERVICES: LANDSCAPE CASE OF SOUTH-KIVU (ALBERTINE RIFLT, DRC)

The analysis and characterization of climate variability over a long five-year period proved fundamental to understanding the impacts of climate change and the vulnerability of ecosystem services in the South Kivu province in the Democratic Republic of Congo. Collection methods from surveys and literature reviews allowed us to conduct qualitative and quantitative analyses of climate change impacts and adaptation approaches based on ecosystem services. For data collection, we used surveys and inventories. The data were statistically analyzed, mainly with regression methods and arithmetic averages. The results of agro-pastoral, fisheries and water production highlight the strong influence of climate change through the decrease in products essential for local consumption. These results are confirmed by statistical analysis almost everywhere R² < 0.5 and p-value > 0.05 (except for vegetable production « p-value < 0.05», Cereal: R²= 0.54 and Legume: R²= 0.74). The same results show us that the non-regulation of river regimes and the decrease in water production by the appropriate service as a result of precipitation and temperature variability data have led to unprecedented disruption due to negative effects on the ecosystem services analyzed. The proposals of the ecosystem-based adaptation approaches as a solution and are important indicators that have assessed climate risks of ecosystem services combined with the poverty impacts of the population and its environment highly vulnerable to climate change.

English

The climatic condition in Ethiopia is semi-arid and this has implications especially for rural communities in the country that are largely dependent on surface water. In water scarce areas across four districts in the Tigray region, a survey of 595 households was carried out, and two shared dialogue workshops was held. In this study, the following issues were examined: (i) Access to water in relation to sources, distances covered, gender and time taken; (ii) Local perceptions on current (2014-2017) and future (2018-2021) access to water, and (iii) The types of water conflicts encountered and their causes. Results indicate 50.8% of the surveyed households collected water from dugout ponds and 24% from rivers. Chi-square test showed a statistical significance at the 1 and 5% level, respectively for distance covered and time taken to water sources. Although gender was not significant statistically, females (N=440) were more involved than males (N=155) in fetching water. Immediate problems arise for householders and specifically women and girls that travelled more than 2 km to collect water. Climate change was mentioned as the key driver that reduced access to water resources whereas tanks with water brought in truck by the government was reported as reason for current increase in access to water. However, future access to water was perceived as unpredictable due to the impacts of climate change. At least 40% of households reported that a member had encountered conflict while accessing water, conflict that manifested itself as verbal accusation and physical fighting. The majority of such instances of conflict resulted from water shortage, followed by pollution from livestock droppings. Project interventions that promote watershed rehabilitation through different ecosystem-based adaptation approaches should be supported locally to restore nearby degraded water sources while improving the functionality of boreholes and existing taps to ensure access and sustainability of water infrastructures. Key words: Water demand, vulnerability, dugout pond, water catchment, collaborative management, semi-arid.

Ecosystem-based Adaptation: A review of the constraints

In the international climate policy arena, Ecosystem-based Adaptation (EbA) has become the preferred adaptation approach to climate change in the least developed and developing countries. Its perceived strength lies in the premise that adaptation strategies need to address both ecosystems and livelihoods simultaneously, given these are crucially intertwined and both under a threat from climate change. While EbA has certainly made progress as an adaptation approach, a lack of understanding still exists how EbA approaches contribute to ‘effective’ adaptation, including the circumstances where they face constraints and limits. Furthermore, implementation of EbA approaches ideally requires a level of understanding about ecosystem structure, productivity and dynamics, and how these are affected by climate change and other direct anthropogenic stressors, that are rarely available in developing countries. This paper aimed to synthesise the current knowledge in the emerging body of EbA specific literature on the kinds of constraints that hamper the use of EbA. Our analysis examined the following constraints: economic and financial, governance and institutional, social and cultural, knowledge constraints and gaps, and physical and biological constraints and limits. The identified constraints demonstrate the complexities in developing, implementing, monitoring and evaluating EbA and propose significant further areas of research, including the need to provide well-documented case studies of EbA, which crystallise the main lessons learned such as practical challenges in designing and implementing EbA projects and research programs.

Vulnerability of human communities in Mexican mangrove ecosystems: an ecosystem-based adaptation approach

Los manglares en buen estado de conservación reducen la vulnerabilidad a eventos extremos tales como el aumento del nivel del mar y huracanes. En México, algunas comunidades dependen de los servicios ambientales del manglar. En la Reserva de la Biosfera La Encrucijada, la conectividad de los ecosistemas que conforman los humedales está disminuyendo a causa de los incendios y las actividades humanas. La degradación se agravó durante los efectos generados por los huracanes Paulina (1997) y Mitch (1998). El enfoque de Adaptación basada en Ecosistemas (AbE) fue utilizado para identificar los beneficios locales proporcionados por los manglares y el aumento de su capacidad de adaptación al cambio climático y considerando que si el manglar se encuentra en buen estado de conservación se mantendrán los servicios de los ecosistemas, incluyendo la protección contra huracanes y sus efectos. En este sentido, para la evaluación del estado de conservación y la estructura de la vegetación se monitorearon 7 transectos, donde se registraron: a) cambios en el tipo de vegetación (datos biológicos, fenológicos, altura de especies arbóreas y en los manglares la condición de las raíces aéreas), b) la representatividad de las especies locales para cada tipo de vegetación identificado (manglares, bosques tropicales de agua dulce, vegetación de dunas costeras, selva baja, arbustos espinosos y cultivos), c) la conectividad diferenciando la continuidad entre los diferentes tipos de vegetación costera o la ruptura de la continuidad por actividades antrópicas, d) el cambio en la cobertura de vegetación e) cambios en la integridad de la vegetación asociados a ecoturismo, asentamientos humanos, cultivos o, y f) la microtopografía de los transectos identificando la altura del escarpe de playa y la pendiente del transecto. Los transectos fueron colocados transversalmente a las islas de barrera, según los diferentes tipos de vegetación y usos de la tierra. Para evaluar la vulnerabilidad social local a climas extremos, se analizaron los cambios en la cobertura vegetal mediante técnicas de teledetección, estadísticas demográficas y se aplicaron entrevistas semi-estructuradas a los habitantes locales y las autoridades de Protección Civil. Los resultados indican que los ciclones tropicales en la region no son tan frecuentes (3 a 8 registrados en 67 años), por lo que solo el 8% de los encuestados percibieron los ciclones como peligro. Sin embargo, si perciben como amenazas al aumento en el nivel del mar, inundaciones y olas de calor. La presencia de los escarpes de playa en la region, la amplia cobertura de vegetación y la conectividad de la vegetación, son factores que favorecen el servicio de protección a. La población es consciente que si se degrada el manglar dicho servicio de protección dismunuiría y las inundaciones afectarían sus hogares y sus bienes. El 19,9% de la superficie total de la reserva ha pasado de manglar a praderas a uso agropecuario. A pesar de que el 61% de las 162 personas encuestadas se dedican a alguna actividad de conservación (gestión de viveros y manglares en zonas restauradas y evitar la caza de animales silvestres), no tienen plena conciencia de los todos los servicios ambientales. Este estudio presenta una metodología de aproximación de la percepción social que puede incorporarse a estrategias de conservación,, de adaptación al cambio climático y de empoderamiento de las comunidades sobre la gestión de su vulnerabilidad y mejorar su bienestar.. Se presentan recomendaciones sobre la gestión ambiental y la reconversión económica de los pobladores para reducir la vulnerabilidad de la region, así como la realización de programas locales y campañas de comunicación y sensibilización sobre los beneficios de los servicios ambientales. Finalmente se evalúan los trabajos de conservación en la reserva a la luz de la adaptación y disminución del riesgo por inundaciones en las poblaciones locales.

Adaptation and poverty reduction in Mozambique: an opportunity for developing countries to lead

ABSTRACTClimate change disproportionately impacts the world’s poorest countries. A recent World Bank report highlighted that over 100 million people are at risk of falling into extreme poverty as a result of climate change. There is currently a lack of information about how to simultaneously address climate change and poverty. Climate change challenges provide an opportunity for those impacted most to come up with new and innovative technologies and solutions. This article uses an example from Mozambique where local and international partners are working side-by-side, to show how developing countries can simultaneously address climate change and poverty reduction using an ecosystem-based adaptation approach. Using ecosystem-based adaptation, a technique that uses the natural environment to help societies adapt to climate change, developing countries can lead the way to improve climate adaptation globally. This paradigm shift would help developing countries become leaders in ecosystem-based adaptation and green infrastructure techniques and has implications for climate policy worldwide.POLICY RELEVANCEThe Paris Agreement resulting from the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) 21st Conference of Parties (COP 21) in December 2015 was rightly lauded for its global commitment to cut greenhouse gas emissions. However, COP 21 was also historic because of its call for non-party stakeholders to address climate change, inclusion of a global goal of ‘enhancing adaptive capacity, strengthening resilience and reducing vulnerability’, and the United States’ commitment of $800 million to adaptation funding. The combination of recognizing the need for new stakeholders to commit to climate change adaptation, the large impact climate change will have on the developing world, and providing access to funds for climate change adaptation creates a unique opportunity for developing countries to pave the way in adaptation policies in practices. Currently, developing countries are creating National Adaptation Plans (NAPs) for the UNFCCC. Through including a strong component of ecosystem-based adaptation in NAPs, developing countries can shape their countries’ policies, improve local institutions and governments, and facilitate a new generation of innovative leaders. Lessons learned in places like Mozambique can help lead the way in other regions facing similar climatic risks.

Ecosystem-based adaptation for improving coastal planning for sea-level rise: A systematic review for mangrove coasts

This paper systematically reviews and synthesizes peer-reviewed, English-language scientific publications (n=212) to identify relevant research about how Ecosystem-Based Adaptation (EBA) is integrated with coastal planning. Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic reviews and Meta-Analysis (PRISMA) methodology is applied in this study. Attention was given to studies concerning human-environment interactions as opposed to physical or biological climate change issues alone because the coastal planning and EBA approach addresses the management of human actions in nature. The literature references include the issue of climate change (77%); however, limited evidence of EBA in coastal areas are reported (18%), and it is evident that the issues have become relevant in the scientific literature published in recent years. Broad texts demonstrate that SLR is one of the major long-term impacts (68%), and all of these papers recognize the most affected ecosystems in the tropics would be mangroves. EBA is an emerging option that can offset anticipated ecosystem losses and improve coastal planning to cope with SLR because it provides benefits beyond climate change stressors. There is a need to synthesize a road map for incorporation of mangrove regulations into local planning instruments and for building capacity for their implementation. Application of PRISMA in marine science will enhance future reviews, facilitate the systematic search and adequately document any theme, and also be useful in determining research gaps or information needs.

Ecosystem-Based Adaptation for Food Security in the AIMS SIDS: Integrating External and Local Knowledge

This paper critically reviews ecosystem-based adaptation (EbA) approaches for food security under climate change, specifically for the Small Island Developing States (SIDS) comprising the Africa, Indian Ocean, Mediterranean and South China Sea (AIMS) region. The focus is on integrating different knowledge forms. An analysis of current EbA approaches for food security is undertaken, alongside a review of methodologies for integrating local and external knowledge. Key gaps and actions for EbA for food security in the AIMS region, and potentially further afield, are identified. The gaps indicate the lack of coherence in AIMS SIDS approaching food security, in terms of policies and actions not reflecting the ecosystem-food-climate nexus, the lack of a regional framework despite similarities amongst the SIDS, and the infrequency with which knowledge integration occurs. To fill these gaps, suggested actions highlight knowledge identification and combination, learning from others and from history, using local champions, and regularly monitoring and evaluating progress. These actions will push forward the EbA agenda through improved development and use of knowledge, better connections amongst the AIMS SIDS and farther afield, and more local-national-regional collaboration.

Major policies and measures on biodiversity adaptation to climate change: international experience and enlightenment

Climate change is a major threat to biodiversity and ecosystem services. We analyzed current policies and measures relating to biodiversity adaptation to climate change in some of the most developed countries and developing mega-biodiversity countries. Some governments recognize the great importance and urgency of action on biodiversity adaptation and have released national strategies. The most popular approach is an ecosystem-based adaptation approach, embodied by measures such as increasing landscape connectivity as well as improving management and restoration of existing protected areas to achieve higher resilience. Most governments consider climate change and its impacts on biodiversity an interdisciplinary topic, which needs continual, collaborative monitoring. Addressing the impacts of climate change also requires an assessment of the vulnerability of biodiversity and ecosystem functioning. The establishment of high-level coordination mechanisms coupled with sufficient funding is required to fully implement adaptation policies and measures. Based on these foreign experiences and current progress in China, we hereby propose the following suggestions: (1) highlight the crucial importance of a biodiversity and a well-adapted ecosystem while enabling society to adapt to climate change; (2) improve capability of integrated management of protected areas to build biodiversity and ecosystem resilience; (3) integrate comprehensive monitoring network and conduct regular and continuing assessment of the vulnerability of biodiversity to climate change in China.