Economic Double Taxation Research Articles

Advocate General’s Opinion in the X BV Case (C-585/22) – Exploring the Potential Interaction between Wholly Artificial Arrangements and the Arm’s Length Principle – Convergency or Divergency?

The proper characterization of the arm’s length principle (ALP) still represents an unresolved issue in the context of EU tax law since it is not clear whether it represents a rule on allocation of income aimed at avoiding economic double taxation or if should be interpreted de iure condendo as a specific provision aimed at determining the minimum level of substance requirement applicable to intercompany transactions. In this article, the authors express their preliminary comments on the Advocate General’s recent opinion in X BV (C-585/22) which concerns the notion of the ALP in the EU context, its departure from Lexel (C-484/19) and the related interplay between the concept of wholly artificial arrangements and the ALP within the EU tax law framework.

Distributions from Foreign Foundations and Trusts—The Case-law of the German Federal Fiscal Court (BFH)

Abstract The taxation of distributions from foreign foundations and trusts to beneficiaries resident in Germany is highly relevant in practice, but continues to be fraught with uncertainties. The article shows that recent case-law of the German Federal Fiscal Court (BFH) has clarified the position only partially. It is shown that economic double taxation burdens can only be avoided with careful planning which should ideally start before establishing German tax residency.

Case Law Note: Italian Supreme Court and the Parent-Subsidiary Directive: A Dark Tunnel with a Light at the End?

The article deals with the recent case law of the Italian Supreme Court in respect of the application of the Parent-Subsidiary Directive. In the timeframe between 2017 and 2019 the Supreme Court issued four judgments which denied the application of the dividend withholding tax exemption regime based on a restrictive and highly disputable interpretation of the ‘subject to tax’ requirement laid down under Article 2(a) (iii) of the Parent-Subsidiary Directive. The article analyses this interpretative approach and highlights the reasons of its non compliance with the principles underlying the Parent-Subsidiary Directive. Then the article analyses a further and more recent judgment of the Italian Supreme Court in which the Court seems to change its approach, clarifying that the dividend withholding tax exemption regime applies even in cases in which the parent company is merely liable to tax in its State of residence, being not required that the dividends received by the parent company are subject to tax in that State. In the conclusions the author expresses his view on possible amendments to the Parent-Subsidiary Directive which could contribute to a more straightforward application of the regimes provided by the Directive in the different EU Member States. Parent-Subsidiary Directive, dividend, withholding tax, subject to tax requirement, liable to tax, Italian Supreme Court, case law, juridical double taxation, economic double taxation.

Recent Italian Case Law Developments on the Withholding Tax Exemption under the EU Parent-Subsidiary Directive (2011/96)

This note provides an analysis of Italian case law since 2018 on the withholding tax exemption under the EU Parent-Subsidiary Directive (2011/96), and in particular on the two different positions that exist in relation to the subject-to-tax requirement and the elimination of economic double taxation for the purposes of the Directive.

The Elimination of Economic Double Taxation in the European Union: Non-Discrimination and Beyond

This article examines the notion of the elimination of economic double taxation, an obstacle to the functioning of the internal market, in the context of the Directive and the EU fundamental freedoms. In the context of the fundamental freedoms, its elimination is a necessary step toward achieving national treatment. In contrast, within the framework of the EU Parent-Subsidiary Directive (2011/96) (the Directive), it is an objective in and of itself, regardless of any discriminatory treatment of cross-border dividends.

What Is International Double Taxation?

With the recent entry into force of the European Dispute Resolution Directive, the term international double taxation has gained legal relevance. This calls for revisiting the definition of international double taxation. This contribution presents the main approaches in the scholarly literature and demonstrates that the widely accepted definition of international double taxation is imprecise. Considering the function of tax treaties, it should instead be understood as a specific disadvantage to cross-border situations resulting from taxation by two or more states. Thus, neither discrimination by solely one state nor virtual double taxation constitute international double taxation in this context. The opposite is valid for intertemporal double taxation when new treaty rules must be created. The European Dispute Resolution Directive accords with the discrimination approach advocated here and substantiates the requirement of discrimination through three different variants. International double taxation, dispute resolution directive, juridical double taxation, economic double taxation, virtual double taxation, intertemporal double taxation, credit method, exemption method, single taxation, double non-taxation.

Related Parties as Used in Transfer Pricing

The paper examines the scope of related party transactions falling under the OECD Transfer Pricing Guidelines (TPG) and the transfer pricing regimes of selected tax jurisdictions. The OECD TPG does not deal with the concept of associated enterprises as used in Article 9 of the OECD Multilateral Tax Convention (MTC), while Article 9 of the OECD MTC does not define the terms used to describe associated enterprises. This gives rise to the question of what exactly was intended for under the scope of Article 9 and its consequent applicability. At the same time, many jurisdictions define related party transactions for transfer pricing purposes using the concept of “control”, but countries may perceive “control” from different perspectives. The paper discusses the practical implications arising from such differences in specific scenarios, e.g. joint ventures, family owned companies, comparability and country-by-country reporting. The “closely related” concept proposed under BEPS Action 7 is also discussed. Finally, the paper concludes with some recommendations to resolve these issues. Given the increasing focus on transfer pricing, more transfer pricing disputes are expected and correspondingly a greater use of Article 9 to eliminate economic double taxation. This intensifies the need for clarity on the scope of Article 9. It would also be timely to review the scope in light of the changes that are being made to the OECD TPG.

Double Taxation Resulting from the ATAD: Is There Relief?

Pursuant to the preamble of the Anti-Tax Avoidance Directive (ATAD), its primary purpose is to combat abusive practices in the EU and ensure that tax is paid where profits are generated without undermining the functioning of the internal market through double taxation (ATAD, recitals 1 and 5). Regardless of the aim of avoiding the creation of a double tax burden on taxpayers, the ATAD does not obligate Member States to effectively eliminate the aforesaid burden. It is, therefore, a taxpayer’s responsibility to identify the correct source of law for providing relief from double taxation. This article focuses on the double taxation that is caused by the implementation of the ATAD and identifies the correct source of law, if possible, to provide relief for such double taxation. As the potential sources of law, the OECD MC (OECD Model Tax Convention on Income and on Capital 2017 (Full Version) (OECD Publishing 2019)), and European Union legislation have been analysed. The scope of this article is limited to the rule on interest deduction limitation and controlled foreign company (CFC) rules as provided in the ATAD. ATAD, anti-tax avoidance directive, interest deduction limitation rule, CFC rules, double taxation, European Union, OECD, economic double taxation, juridical double taxation

The Interplay between Interest Limitation Rules and Anti-hybrid Rules: Inverting the Paradigm

This chapter argues for inverting the “official paradigm” as regards the conflicting application of interest limitation and anti-hybrid rules, giving priority to the application of interest limitation rules over anti-hybrid rules in all those cases in which hybrid mismatches come into play. This proposal, in the author’s view, may bring more consistent outcomes both from a practical and from a tax policy perspective, ultimately avoiding economic double taxation.

The Role of Corporate Residence in Tax Matters and its Relationship with the Provision of Dividend Relief: A Comparative Analysis between the UK and the US Tax Systems

The aim of this paper is to illustrate the main features and issues related to the concept of corporate residence, showing to what extent it can have an impact on the provision of dividend relief. To this purpose, I will use the examples of the UK and the US, analysing the concept of residence and explaining why some emerging tax theories are trying to abandon it. Then, I will study the relevant connection between the concept of corporate residence and the provision of dividend relief. Residence is related to the elements of the legal autonomy of corporations. However, this separation of corporations from their shareholders is the main cause for economic double taxation and for other distortions related to corporate income taxes that need to be solved by dividend relief. Abandoning the concept of residence and attributing the corporate profit directly to shareholders would make the use of dividend relief unnecessary. Therefore, the advantage of relating the corporation to the place in which taxes can be enforced is obtained at the cost of the distortions created by corporate taxation and the dividend relief systems.

Corresponding Adjustment and Its Interaction with the Mutual Agreement Procedure under Article 25 of the OECD Model

Primary transfer pricing adjustments under article 9(1) of the OECD Model in the case of associated enterprises trigger economic double taxation as the same income has already been subject to taxation in the hands of the associated enterprises in other contracting states. The author examines the existing relief mechanism of economic double taxation under article 9(2) of the OECD Model and its interaction with article 25 thereof to find out its effectiveness and suggests possible measures to remedy the shortcomings.

Hybrid Entity Mismatches and the International Trend of Matching Tax Outcomes: A Critical Approach

The international tax debate as regards hybrid entities has certainly changed after the OECD BEPS Project. Since then, the trend has been focused exclusively on matching transactions involving hybrids and reverse hybrid entities and double non-taxation, however without questioning whether these two elements are necessarily interconnected or whether they should serve each other in the design of domestic anti-hybrid provisions. This is particularly evident as regards the notion of ‘hybrid (entity) mismatch arrangements’ the design of which is based on the assumption that income should be taxed somewhere – no matter where – and as regards the complex set of domestic solutions proposed (‘linking rules’) the true efficacy of which is nevertheless still unknown. In this vein, this article adopts a critical approach both as regards the diagnosis of the problems and as regards the solutions proposed. As to the diagnosis, the author argues that the artificial attempt to match transactions involving hybrid entities and double non-taxation not only disregards the fundamental issue as regards hybrid entity mismatches (i.e. the disparate tax characterization of the same entity by two different states), but also carries with it the risk of creating presumptions of abusive practices in all those cases in which a hybrid entity structure is simply not taxed at all. As to the remedies, the author argues against the complexity, excessive reliance on foreign laws and potential economic double taxation issues that the implementation of linking rules might cause from a tax policy perspective. From a practical perspective, the author questions the proper interaction between linking rules and other anti-base erosion provisions, such as interest limitations and CFC rules. This article ultimately concludes that a re-orientation in the international debate regarding hybrids and reverse hybrid entities is crucial in order to open the door for more fundamental – and perhaps also more coordinated – solutions.

Ocena zmian w polskich regulacjach dotyczących cen transferowych

W artykule przedstawiono ocenę zmian regulacji dotyczących cen transferowych pomiędzy podmiotami powiązanymi. Zmiany te obowiązywać będą w Polsce od 1 stycznia 2019 r. Oceny dokonano poprzez porównanie i weryfikację zgodności zmian ze standardami międzynarodowymi wynikającymi z rekomendacji OECD dotyczących cen transferowych. Zapewnienie zgodności ze standardami międzynarodowymi jest bowiem warunkiem pozwalającym na zastosowanie mechanizmów unikania ekonomicznego podwójnego opodatkowania dochodu pomiędzy podmiotami powiązanymi w sytuacji szacowania dochodów jednego z nich. Ocenę zgodności przeprowadzono względem najważniejszych zmian dotyczących skorygowanego podejścia do stosowania międzynarodowego standardu dotyczącego cen transferowych, zasady arm’s length. Skorygowane podejście do zasady arm’s length wprowadza kilka zmian, z których najważniejsza dotyczy nałożenia dodatkowych obowiązków dotyczących ustalania na bieżąco cen transferowych oraz uprawnienia organów podatkowych do stosowania instytucji uznania w przypadku zmiany charakteru transakcji pomiędzy podmiotami powiązanymi lub jej pominięcia. Istotność tego zagadnienia wynika z zaproponowanego brzmienia przepisu, które nie nakłada istotnych ograniczeń przeciwdziałających nadmiernej uznaniowości organów podatkowych. W artykule wskazano, które zmiany przepisów budzą wątpliwości co do ich zgodności ze standardami międzynarodowymi. Są to zarazem zagadnienia prowadzące do powstawania sporów międzynarodowych, które będą skutkować brakiem możliwości uniknięcia podwójnego opodatkowania

Tax or social security contribution, a world of difference?

Abstract Cross-border employees and self-employed workers are confronted with the regulations of at least two states when it comes to taxation and social security. Without delving into the specifics of national regulations, this article examines the applicable rules concerning the levy of taxes and social security contributions in the context of cross-border employment. Regulations aimed at avoiding double taxation are different from those aimed at avoiding the double payment of social security contributions. Because social security in the Member States can be financed in different ways, the levying of so-called economic double taxation is possible. This is true in particular where states use a large part of the tax revenues to finance their social security system. Cross-border workers that are required to pay taxes in these states and also pay social security contributions in another state can feel that they are paying double social security contributions. This contributes to a sense of injustice and is undesirable. The conclusion is that possible double economic contributions must be studied in a broader European context. First, the problem must be identified and then solutions formulated in order to prevent double levying.

Related Parties as Used in Transfer Pricing

There is a need to provide more clarity about the meaning of the term “associated enterprise” in article 9 of the OECD Model Tax Convention (OECD Model), as it serves the objective of the elimination of economic double taxation and ensures that transactions between associated enterprises are conducted at arm’s length. Given the increasing focus on transfer pricing, a rise in the number of transfer pricing disputes is expected, and correspondingly article 9 of the OECD Model and the relevant tax treaties will be applied more often and to a greater extent to eliminate economic double taxation.

Taxation of capital gains of companies from the alienation of shares

The paper deals with the tax treatment of capital gains on shares of companies both in national and tax treaty law. The authors indicate that the authentic interpretation of the Art. 27 of Serbia's Tax on Profits of Legal Entities Law opens the door to taxing not only realised but also potential capital gains thus triggering certain harmful consequences. Relying on the comparative legal analysis they suggest measures how to eliminate the existing economic double taxation and plead for granting a credit for the tax on capital gains paid abroad. In order to hamper tax evasion the introduction of a security for the resident company whose shares are alienated by a non-resident company at a gain is suggested whenever the tax return has not been filed. By analysing Serbia's 58 tax treaties the authors conclude that 28 of them contain a single demarcation rule exclusively granting jurisdiction to tax the capital gains on shares to the state of residence of the alienator, while in remaining 30 treaties an additional anti-avoidance rule is prescribed.

Transactions with Hard-to-Value Intangibles: Is BEPS Action 8 Based on the Arm’s Length Principle?

Action 8 claims that the ex post approach is consistent with the arm’s length principle. Based on his analysis in this article, however, the author concludes that the ex post approach may deviate from the arm’s length principle and, consequently, lead to economic double taxation.

OECD Guidelines. Between Soft-Law and Hard-Law in Transfer Pricing Matters

Transfer pricing is a crucial issue in international tax law, yet its legal regulation at the level of international law is rather limited. Provisions on transfer pricing are contained in both the OECD Model Tax Convention on Income and on Capital and its US and UN equivalents (Article 9 in all three models). Their wording, however, is rather general. This leaves plenty of matters to be regulated at the domestic level, which cannot properly serve the aim of international law in this regard – namely, elimination of economic double taxation. However, Article 9 of the OECD Model is developed in far more detailed guidelines developed by the OECD, which are used in numerous countries. The OECD guidelines are not the only piece of soft-law in transfer pricing matters available worldwide. The author analyses their legal status and on that basis makes certain forecasts as to their further application in the future.

Discriminatory tax treatment of CFC’s losses towards losses of partnerships, economic double taxation, exchange of tax information and future developments of the Norwegian CFC rules

Discriminatory tax treatment of CFC’s losses towards losses of partnerships, economic double taxation, exchange of tax information and future developments of the Norwegian CFC rules

The Potential Impact of Euro-Mediterranean Association Agreements on the Taxation of Inbound Dividends

This article examines the impact of the free movement of capital provisions in Euro-Mediterranean Association Agreements on the taxation of inbound dividends from third countries. In that context, particular attention is paid to domestic provisions dealing with economic double taxation.