Economic Aspirations Research Articles

Impact of COVID-19 Pandemic on the Migrant Workers and Public Policy in Case of Malaysia & Indonesia

B The COVID-19 (Corona Virus Disease 2019) pandemic has changed the world altogether to a different plane. It has disrupted economy, health, family, society, etc. and there is no one left who has not been affected by it. Public Policy in case of migrant workers finds important place in this calculation. For, they play an important role in many of the economies, and still are the most vulnerable section of people who has been affected by the COVID-19 pandemic. Their problem emanates from various angles like that of being a legal or illegal (unaccounted) migrant worker, vulnerabilities emanating from lack of bargaining power with their employers and host nations, lack of safety working and hygienic living conditions, access to proper affordable health care facilities, etc. For the international migrant workers (who crosses border from home state to another state for purpose of employment or better economic aspirations), things have been really difficult in these pandemic times in terms of how they were treated by the authorities in the host countries and what kind of national public policy measures was taken to assure their physical health and mental wellbeing, engaging with them to assuage their psychological trauma caused due to various pressures and stress, economic condition, etc. Women migrant workers were more affected in way of losing their jobs, livelihood, family pressures and responsibilities. This paper looks into the effect of COVID-19 pandemic on the migrant workers, particularly with a focus on public policy measures taken in Malaysia and Indonesia, as these two nations contributes major chunk of migrant workers (inward and outward respectively) in the south-East Asian region. Apart from detailing the problems faced by the migrant workers during the pandemic times, this paper will dwell deep into the kinds of national public policy measures implemented towards the migrant workers as a response to the pandemic condition and its impact. In addition, this paper will also look into the role and policy of international organisations and NGOs towards the same. Apart from analyzing the problems and identifying the gaps in the approach of the respective governments, recommendations are also made to the public policy makers to improve the effect of their public policies and actions towards the migrant workers, on the basis of highlighting some good practices that are followed in other states.

India’s Security and Climate Policy: Navigating the China Challenge

In a world rich in climate knowledge but short on climate action, it is important to understand the political reasons behind the apparent failure of states to address this planetary crisis. One underexplored dimension of this phenomenon is the impact of broader geopolitics and rivalry, in specific the ability and willingness of potential and actual security and economic rivals to leave their contention at the gates of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). This article focuses on India’s multifaceted approach to its ‘China challenge’ with and outside the climate regime. While conventional scholarship focuses on the security and economic dimensions of this rivalry, this study offers a distinct perspective that examines whether this rivalry might lead to a breakdown of cooperation and an increased potential for conflict and weaponisation of seemingly disconnected issue areas. Drawing on a comprehensive triangulation of policy documents, government statements and scholarly literature, this article evaluates the domestic and international factors shaping India’s climate-related China policies, including the countries’ unique economic ambitions, development imperatives, energy needs and global climate commitments. Furthermore, the article examines Sino-Indian interactions in international arenas such as the UNFCCC and Brazil, Russia, India, China, South Africa (BRICS), and how these interactions influence global climate governance.

‘It is absolutely unnecessary, even detrimental, to embellish the façades’

Following World War I, Belgium faced a severe housing crisis, necessitating a comprehensive reform of social housing policy. Established in 1919, the National Society for Cheap Housing (Nationale Maatschappij voor Goedkope Woningen en Woonvertrekken, nmgww) aimed not only to repair material damage but also to address new social and societal demands. However, financial resources were limited, while there was also a severe shortage of (traditional) building materials and skilled labour. Progressive architects attempted to create a new, socially engaged architecture with a modernist vocabulary through the nmgww. They also advocated for the application of alternative building methods that had the added advantage of being financially favourable. The lack of expertise and experience with these alternative methods prompted the nmgww to set up an experimental project at Het Rad in Anderlecht in 1920. It entailed the construction of some sixty houses, employing eighteen different building systems. While most of these systems used concrete blocks, three utilized a prefabricated skeleton, and two opted for cast-in-situ concrete using monolithic casting systems. Nearly all utilized ‘lean concrete’, a type of concrete with a low cement content. Furthermore, in most cases part of the aggregate was replaced with industrial waste products to reduce costs and improve thermal properties. The intention was to perform an extensive evaluation and objective comparison of the different building systems. Yet even before the experiments had been concluded, the nmgww started to actively promote the German casting system Non Plus. For example, it invited local housing associations to participate in a study trip to Merseburg near Berlin to familiarize themselves with the system. Successfully, as it turns out as the system was subsequently used in the garden suburbs of Klein Rusland in Zelzate (1920-1923) and La Cité Moderne in Sint-Agatha-Berchem (1922-1925). The two districts were designed respectively by the architects Huib Hoste and Victor Bourgeois in a modernist idiom. The literature often refers to the economic benefits of the Non Plus system and to the impact of construction techniques on the aesthetics of these garden suburbs. However, in-depth research shows that the relationship between economic, technical and aesthetic aspects is not so straightforward: concrete was not necessarily cheaper than brick, while the plaster exterior often concealed a variety of systems. Moreover, both garden suburbs were initially designed in brick, indicating that there is no causal link between the material and the design language. It was not long, however, before the alternative building systems in lean concrete, particularly the monolithic casting systems, were abandoned. After 1926, as a result of political power shifts, the focus switched to small-scale projects and alternative building systems lost their scale-based economic advantage. Yet the experiment with alternative building practices, however brief, was an important phase in Belgian architectural and construction history. Projects like Het Rad and the modernist garden suburbs in cast-in-situ concrete show the interrelationship between societal, social, political, cultural and economic ambitions on the one hand, and the evolution of building culture on the other.

CPEC: A SOURCE OF STRENGTHENING BILATERAL TIES AND DRIVING STRATEGIC PARTNERSHIP

The China-Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC) is a flagship project of the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI), significantly enhancing cooperation and interconnectivity between Pakistan and China. This $62 billion initiative, spanning communication infrastructure, energy, telecommunication, industrial zones, and Gwadar Port, is not just an economic endeavor. It holds immense strategic importance for both regional and extra-regional countries. By enhancing trade routes and transforming Pakistan’s geostrategic importance, particularly through the link between Gwadar Port and Xinjiang, CPEC provides China with direct access to the Arabian Sea. This paper delves into how CPEC strengthens bilateral ties between China and Pakistan, contributes to regional economic and political stability, and serves as a model for international collaboration. The project’s success is underpinned by infrastructure improvements, energy investments, and an expanded transportation network, positioning Pakistan as a key player in global trade and furthering China’s geopolitical and economic ambitions. Beyond development, CPEC fosters a new era of bilateral cooperation and shared strategic objectives, serving as a beacon of international collaboration.

Negotiating University, Fulfilling the Dream: The Case of Black Students

The experiences of Black students in Canadian higher education shed light on the societal and institutional challenges that influence their social and economic aspirations. In today’s societal and economic context, obtaining a postsecondary education degree is not just preferred but essential for securing the employment opportunities that most young people desire. For Black communities in particular, a university degree is often seen as the primary pathway to upward social mobility. However, Black students’ journeys toward higher education are frequently hindered by systemic barriers and institutional challenges. While there is extensive literature detailing the systemic forces that obstruct access to higher education for Black Canadians, there is limited academic focus on how these forces continue to affect Black students once they enter higher education. This article addresses this gap by investigating the educational experiences of Black students in Canadian universities, emphasizing the challenges posed by systemic racism and institutional barriers. Utilizing data from interviews and focus groups with Black undergraduate and graduate students from a university in the Greater Toronto Area (GTA), the study explores how historical and contemporary issues of anti-Black racism shape their academic journeys. It discusses the broader implications of these experiences and highlights the need for comprehensive institutional reforms to create genuinely inclusive and equitable educational environments. By centering the voices of Black students, this research aims to contribute to the ongoing dialog on racial equity in higher education.

“Vivre en paix et en bonne intelligence avec les princes locaux” in Senegambia in the Age of Slave Economy: Diplomatic Treaties, Trade, Conflicts, and Peace in Interaction (1679–1815)

Abstract The violent and competitive context in which trade relations between the states of Senegambia and Europeans evolved required moments of calm and stability, which were decisive and important factors in the cohabitation of trade actors. Diplomacy was a fundamental political lever for European trade in Senegambia. It had become a major stake in the daily lives of the actors. Diplomacy was generally reserved for field actors from different political cultures and with different political and economic ambitions. Diplomacy took the form of negotiations, and took the form of simple agreements of principle, notably in the context of palavers, or the conclusion of trade and peace treaties. The aim of diplomacy, for example, was to establish strong, peaceful commercial relations between trade players and to regularize the tax system, which was the fundamental basis of trade and the expression of the sovereignty of local chiefs towards the Europeans.

Embodied with data: Early childhood education and care centre director's stories about living with datafication

This article presents autoethnographic short stories that describe an early childhood education and care (ECEC) centre director's work for one year in a municipality in Finland. The purpose of this article is to provide a glimpse into what it is like to enter into an ECEC director position and live everyday ECEC life with economic data that are produced by frequently fluctuating child–staff ratios. This study contributes to a better understanding of the transformational implications of datafication by providing insight into affective interrelations held together by economic aspirations. It shows that datafication is a powerful tool to affect and to be affected in the female-dominated care work of ECEC. The study highlights the possibilities of using an autoethnographic analysis to recognise how data affect the body in data dominated ECEC and how to utilise this very recognition as resistance.

Living my Latin American influencer dream: How racism and nationality shape Latin American influencers within the US

This paper investigates the intersection of racism, nationality, and the global Latin American influencer dream. It examines the experiences of Latin American influencers in the United States, where pursuing commercial success intersects with cultural and economic aspirations. Additionally, it explores the role of content service organizations in shaping creator culture and the working experiences of Latin American influencers. Despite the global imagination, influencer economies largely remain national, constrained by socio-cultural, linguistic, and regional norms. Drawing from literature on influencer cultures, platform economies, and imaginaries, the study analyzes data from interviews with content service organization executives and influencers, alongside platform analytics and advertising campaigns. The findings elucidate how racial discourses shape and challenge creator cultures, highlighting barriers for Latin American influencers in the US. This research contributes to understanding the social dimensions of creator culture, revealing impediments faced by diasporic influencers.

Central Asia in Russian descriptions of the 18<sup>th</sup> century: On an anonymous note from the non-church calendar of the Enlightenment Era

There is a lot of interest in travelogue in the research environment today. Russian oriental travelogues, associated with the Central Asian region, have not been studied sufficiently before, besides a certain number of substantive works primarily of a historiographical nature. A special body of problems here is related to the origins of the Russian Central Asian travelogue formation as a genre structure. One of the texts, related to the “origins of the genre” and taken for consideration in this article, is a note by an anonymous author-compiler entitled “News of Bukharia”, published in the “Monthly Historical and Geographical Dictionary for 1779” (St. Petersburg Imperial Academy of Sciences). The article is a kind of commentary on this note. We characterize the journal in which it was presented – the printed secular calendar of the 18th century, it differs from the religious ones. The article determines historical, cultural, landscape and geographical realities, reflected in it, and identifies the ideological position of the compiler in the context of the eastern imperial policy of those years. We cautiously assume that when writing the text, the author could use materials on Central Asia from Western sources. There is no literary element as such in the described note. This is not a travelogue in the exact meaning of the term, but a concise informative essay on a regional topic, in which, however, there is no strategy for an objective scientific narrative (“pure curiosity”). We can clearly see the journalistic (state) ideologems of its era, combining the economic aspirations of Russia and its geopolitical attitudes (it is significant that in the note the reader he does not even find any ethnographic images of Central Asian people, their portraits, morals and everyday habits). At the same time, the text of the “News of Bukharia” includes separate general literary components– strict composition, laconism of speech style and logical sequence. The text is important as an early stage in the formation of a scientific and artistic Central Asia modus, as a phenomenon of “documentary literature”, not “fictional literature”.

DEVELOPMENT OF SEMIPARAMETRIC PATH ANALYSIS MODELING TRUNCATED SPLINE: DETERMINANTS OF INCREASED REGIONAL ECONOMIC GROWTH

This research aims to determine regional economic improvement to achieve a better Indonesian economy and accelerate the path to achieving a Golden Indonesia in 2045 so that it can be realized in a shorter time. This goal will be achieved with the help of statistical analysis methods, where the analysis used in this research is semiparametric truncated spline indirect effect and total effect analysis. The research becomes original in its approach with the utilization of this method and offers novel insights into the dynamics of regional economic development in Indonesia. These methods in this research serve as a tool for analyzing regional economic dynamics, identifying critical factors for improvement, informing policy decisions aimed at realizing Indonesia's economic aspirations for the future, and providing more flexible results to achieve the research objectives. The study was carried out on data with regional expenditure variables as exogenous variables, labor absorption variables as mediating endogenous variables, and regional economic growth variables as pure endogenous variables. The data used in the research are data published by the National/Provincial Central Bureau of Statistics in the form of the Indonesian Statistics Book, BPS publications in the form of Provinces, Provincial Government Financial Statistics, Directorate General of Financial Balance, Sumreg Bappenas, as well as from Ministries, Institutions or Agencies that related to providing data relating to the variables of this research in 2020. The results of this research are that the relationship between regional expenditure variables and labor absorption variables has a significant effect on regional economic growth variables.

Botswana Coal: Navigating Economic Diversification and Climate Commitments

This paper considers the ethical dilemma posed by the Paris Climate Agreement considering the abundant coal exploitation opportunities in Botswana. The estimated 200 billion tons of coal was initially viewed as an opportunity to diversify the Botswana economy away from diamonds. Coal is currently used locally for electricity production and other small scale domestic uses. This paper mainly discusses thermal coal as opposed to coking coal commonly referred to as Met-coal. Lucrative prices on world markets coupled with demand in India and China for coal, Botswana with its massive coal deposits, one of the largest in world, can develop a new export sector which would diversify the diamond dependent economy. In 2012 the Government of Botswana released a Coal Road Map as it then envisaged coal as one of the more propitious areas for economic diversification. However, the potential to develop this export sector has been seriously challenged by the Paris Climate Agreement decision to move away from coal. In the wake of this treaty countries like China and Japan have refocused their efforts in developing renewable energy and this has negatively hampered Botswana’s economic ambitions.

Governing sustainable corridor development: A case study of the Gilimanuk–Denpasar–Padang Bai corridor in Indonesia

AbstractIn regional planning, and more specifically transport corridor development, sustainability is often overshadowed by economic ambitions and prospects. This contribution explores how the governance of corridor development processes can enhance sustainability. It presents findings from the planning process for the Gilimanuk–Denpasar–Padang Bai (GDP) Corridor in Bali, Indonesia. The analysis is guided by a theoretical framework that builds on literature on regional development, corridor development, sustainability and governance. Using process tracing, the analysis investigates the influence of five governance factors on the process of sustainable corridor development and its outcomes, notably the presence of a sustainability vision, the governance mode, the actor constellation, the available knowledge, and the institutional setting. Whereas literature on sustainable corridors suggests that governance structures and corridor management are needed, this contribution analysis how and under what conditions these structures in practice contribute to sustainable outcomes. The findings show how the original economic focus of the corridor gradually evolved into a more sustainable one, although not all potentials were realized. These illustrate that sustainable corridors require governance of interaction processes, involving a dynamic and contextualized constellation of governance factors, that co‐evolves during the planning process. Despite that the GDP corridor gradually developed into a more sustainable direction, the presence of a sustainability rather than an economic focus from the onset would have increased the potentials of realizing sustainability ambitions.

Balancing Growth and Sustainability: Environmental Diplomacy as the Key to India\'s Climate Future

Abstract: India has undergone significant economic growth and has undertaken multiple development programs. This article explores the complex relationship between India's economic aspirations and its obligations towards the environment, emphasizing the crucial importance of environmental diplomacy in managing these intricacies. The article explains how environmental diplomacy may play a crucial role in defining India's climate trajectory, while also promoting economic growth and sustainable development

Hidden environmental costs of economic ambitions: An empirical study of pollution emissions in the wake of growth targets

The extant body of academic literature has thoroughly examined the influence of political promotion institutions on various aspects of economic growth and corporate behavior. However, there remains a gap in the understanding the extent and mechanisms through which the establishment of economic growth targets influences firms' pollution emissions. Addressing this gap, we construct datasets that encapsulate both micro-level and macro-level perspectives to examine the impact of economic growth targets on corporate pollution. We find that an increase in economic growth targets leads to a significant rise in pollution emissions from industrial firms. To address potential endogeneity issues, we employ various strategies, and our results remain robust across these different approaches. We then estimate the heterogeneous impact of economic growth targets and demonstrate that the positive effect of these targets on pollution emissions tends to be less pronounced for firms situated in cities governed by female mayors. Conversely, the effect appears more pronounced for firms located in the western region, those operating in cities led by older mayors, and those in cities where mayors have lower levels of education. Finally, we explore potential mechanisms through which economic growth targets impact corporate pollution. Our results show that at the firm level, a higher economic growth target primarily leads to increased pollution emissions from enterprises by reducing firms' investment in pollution control. At the city level, an elevation in economic growth targets predominantly results in escalated enterprise-related pollution, chiefly due to its hindrance of urban green innovation, reduction in fiscal allocations for science and technology, and a decrease in educational fiscal outlays. These empirical findings strongly advocate for the implementation of measures aimed at dissuading prefecture-level city governments from formulating excessively ambitious economic growth targets, as a viable strategy for mitigating pollution stemming from manufacturing firms in developing nations. In view of this, our research is conducive to advancing the process of building a sustainable development path in China and providing reliable solutions to global ecological challenges.

State and non-state actors’ contribution to economic stability or instability of State-Owned Entities: a case study of South African Airways

The state and non-state actors have always influenced the issues arising in society, particularly concerning state-owned entities (SOEs), economic stability, and instability. From having an influence within their national borders to the international scale, these actors are very pivotal agents that often seek to bring justice and better ordinary individuals' lives. Non-state actors such as multinational corporations and civil society organizations are some of those on the frontlines of fighting for economic emancipation, especially in less developed states. Yet, this is not always the case; in some instances, they can be noted as villains who would bring about the injustices themselves. Although their influence cuts across many sectors of society, the paper sought to discuss the contribution of these two actors, the state and the non-state actor, to the economic stability and/or instability of state-owned entities. From this premise, the paper adopted a qualitative method and case study approach for South African Airways (SAA) to understand the contribution of state and non-state entities to the financial stability or instability of SAA. Thus, the findings suggest that SOEs are affected by various direct and indirect interventions by both state and non-state actors, especially in their economic ambitions, which provide stability or instability in the entity. Hence, the paper concludes that the economic stability or instability of SOEs such as SAA is largely affected by the intervention of both state and non-state actors.

Short-term gains versus long-term strains: productivist policies and family resilience in China

This article studies the intricate dynamics of family resilience within the Chinese productivist regime over the course of seven decades, emphasizing the instrumental role of public policy in shaping this resilience. Drawing on a dynamic approach, the research demonstrates how, across distinct periods of central planning and economic reform, policies have persistently harnessed families to advance economic objectives. Showing that the productivist regime’s double-edged role on family resilience emerged while public policies bolstered short-term family resilience in times of sustained economic growth and favorable demographics, and signs of family sector downturn—declining fertility rates, family dysfunctions—became evident, the current article underscores the challenges of a model that primarily perceives families as economic instruments. Advocating for a policy paradigm shift that harmonizes economic ambitions with family well-being, this study offers valuable insights for policy-makers and lays the groundwork for future research in comparative welfare systems.

MIGRATION TRENDS AND POLICIES: A REVIEW OF AFRICAN AND USA PERSPECTIVES

Migration is a global phenomenon that significantly shapes the demographic, economic, and social landscapes of nations. This Review provides a concise overview of the migration trends and policies in Africa and the United States, exploring commonalities, differences, and the implications for both regions. In the African context, migration is a multifaceted process influenced by economic, political, and environmental factors. The continent experiences both voluntary economic migration and forced displacement due to conflicts and environmental challenges. This review delves into the diversity of migration policies across African nations, highlighting the tension between regional integration and the need for border controls. The African Union's role in shaping continental migration policies is examined, emphasizing the importance of balancing economic interests with humanitarian considerations. The United States, historically a destination for immigrants, has a complex immigration system shaped by changing societal needs and political landscapes. This Review outlines the various forms of migration to the U.S., including family reunification, employment-based immigration, and asylum-seeking. The dynamic interplay between federal regulations and state-level initiatives contributes to a nuanced policy framework. This review explores the historical evolution of U.S. immigration policies, from periods of openness to more restrictive measures based on economic conditions and security concerns. Comparatively analyzing migration trends and policies in Africa and the USA reveals common themes such as economic aspirations, geopolitical influences on forced migration, and the importance of comprehensive policy frameworks. Recognizing migration as a shared global challenge underscores the need for collaborative approaches. This Review emphasizes the significance of international cooperation to address the root causes of migration, promote economic development, and safeguard the rights of migrants. In conclusion, this Review encapsulates the intricate dynamics of migration in Africa and the USA. By understanding the shared challenges and embracing collaborative solutions, nations can work towards creating more inclusive, humane, and sustainable migration policies that benefit individuals and societies on a global scale.
 Keywords: Perspectives, Policies, USA, Africa, Migration, Review.

Unraveling Korea’s Energy Challenge: The Consequences of Carbon Dioxide Emissions and Energy Use on Economic Sustainability

This research delves into the effects of carbon dioxide emissions and energy consumption on economic growth in Korea from 1980 to 2022, employing a sophisticated nonlinear autoregressive distributed lag model. The study unveils pivotal findings, most notably the positive association between carbon dioxide emissions and economic growth, suggesting that periods of economic expansion in Korea have been accompanied by surges in emissions. Furthermore, the investigation highlights a significant, albeit asymmetrical, positive impact of primary energy consumption on economic growth, illuminating the critical role of energy in the nation’s economic trajectory. The analysis also identifies essential economic determinants—namely, the labor force, gross fixed capital formation, and net inflows of foreign direct investment—underscoring their pivotal contributions to economic proliferation. The reliability of these insights is corroborated through advanced econometric techniques, including fully modified ordinary least squares and dynamic ordinary least squares methods. A noteworthy discovery emerges from the Toda–Yamamoto causality test, revealing bidirectional Granger causality between carbon dioxide emissions and economic growth, as well as between energy consumption and economic growth. Moreover, it uncovers a unidirectional causality flowing from labor, capital formation, and foreign direct investment towards economic growth. These findings elucidate the complex interplay between environmental and economic elements, highlighting the critical need for sustainable energy policies and proactive environmental stewardship in Korea. By advocating for a synthesis of economic advancement and environmental sustainability, this study presents indispensable insights for policymakers. It calls for a judicious approach to balancing Korea’s economic ambitions with its ecological responsibilities, thereby charting a sustainable path forward for the nation. Through its comprehensive analysis, this research contributes valuable perspectives to the discourse on economic development and environmental sustainability, offering guidance for Korea’s strategic planning and policy formulation.

The proxy war in Ukraine

Overwhelming empathy with all the civilians and conscripts who have suffered from the ongoing violence in Ukraine, which began years before the Russian invasion of February 2022, must be complemented by analysis and explanation. What can anthropologists contribute? I have been disappointed by one-sided accounts endorsing the government of President Volodymyr Zelensky and the cause of the Ukrainian nation that have dominated in the Western mass media and anglophone academic work, including that of anthropologists. From an anthropological perspective, to invoke international law and sacralize political sovereignty is inadequate (Hann 2023; Malinowski 1944). Instead, we need to scrutinize the complex history of the Ukrainian nation, which is being consummated through the present violence. We need to recognize that Zelensky heads an Atlanticist, market-oriented, nationalist regime of dubious legitimacy. This critical stance does not mean deference to the Kremlin in the spirit of the “realist school” of international relations. It does mean recalling that as late as autumn 2021 President Vladimir Putin was putting forward proposals for a peaceful resolution of the crisis brought about by Western geopolitical and economic ambitions since the end of the Cold War. For the Russian political classes (not just for Putin and his oligarchical allies), when it came to NATO expansion Ukraine was a unique red line. However, too many interest groups in Washington as well as in Kyiv actually wanted the war that began in February 2022 (though this could not be declared publicly).

The proxy war in Ukraine

Overwhelming empathy with all the civilians and conscripts who have suffered from the ongoing violence in Ukraine, which began years before the Russian invasion of February 2022, must be complemented by analysis and explanation. What can anthropologists contribute? I have been disappointed by one-sided accounts endorsing the government of President Volodymyr Zelensky and the cause of the Ukrainian nation that have dominated in the Western mass media and anglophone academic work, including that of anthropologists. From an anthropological perspective, to invoke international law and sacralize political sovereignty is inadequate (Hann 2023; Malinowski 1944). Instead, we need to scrutinize the complex history of the Ukrainian nation, which is being consummated through the present violence. We need to recognize that Zelensky heads an Atlanticist, market-oriented, nationalist regime of dubious legitimacy. This critical stance does not mean deference to the Kremlin in the spirit of the “realist school” of international relations. It does mean recalling that as late as autumn 2021 President Vladimir Putin was putting forward proposals for a peaceful resolution of the crisis brought about by Western geopolitical and economic ambitions since the end of the Cold War. For the Russian political classes (not just for Putin and his oligarchical allies), when it came to NATO expansion Ukraine was a unique red line. However, too many interest groups in Washington as well as in Kyiv actually wanted the war that began in February 2022 (though this could not be declared publicly).