Primate Ecology Research Articles

Technical note: A biological anthropologist's guide for applying microbiome science to studies of human and non-human primates.

A central goal of biological anthropology is connecting environmental variation to differences in host physiology, biology, health, and evolution. The microbiome represents a valuable pathway for studying how variation in host environments impacts health outcomes. While there are many resources for learning about methods related to microbiome sample collection, laboratory analyses, and genetic sequencing, there are fewer dedicated to helping researchers navigate the dense portfolio of bioinformatics and statistical approaches for analyzing microbiome data. Those that do exist are rarely related to questions in biological anthropology and instead are often focused on human biomedicine. To address this gap, we expand on existing tutorials and provide a "road map" to aid biological anthropologists in understanding, selecting, and deploying the data analysis and visualization methods that are most appropriate for their specific research questions. Leveraging an existing dataset of fecal samples and survey data collected from wild geladas living in Simien Mountains National Park in Ethiopia (Baniel et al., 2021), this paper guides researchers toward answering three questions related to variation in the gut microbiome across host and environmental factors. By providing explanations, examples, and a reproducible workflow for different analytic methods, we move beyond the theoretical benefits of considering the microbiome within anthropological research and instead present researchers with a guide for applying microbiome science to their work. This paper makes microbiome science more accessible to biological anthropologists and paves the way for continued research into the microbiome's role in the ecology, evolution, and health of human and non-human primates.

Ecological and genetic variables co-vary with social group identity to shape the gut microbiome of a pair-living primate.

Primates exhibit diverse social systems that are intricately linked to their biology, behavior, and evolution, all of which influence the acquisition and maintenance of their gut microbiomes (GMs). However, most studies of wild primate populations focus on taxa with relatively large group sizes, and few consider pair-living species. To address this gap, we investigate how a primate's social system interacts with key environmental, social, and genetic variables to shape the GMin pair-living, red-bellied lemurs (Eulemur rubriventer). Previous research on this species suggests that social interactions within groups influence interindividual microbiome similarity; however, the impacts of other nonsocial variables and their relative contributions to gut microbial variation remain unclear. We sequenced the 16S ribosomal RNA hypervariable V4-V5 region to characterize the GM from 26 genotyped individuals across 11social groups residing in Ranomafana National Park, Madagascar. We estimated the degree to which sex, social group identity, genetic relatedness, dietary diversity, and home range proximity were associated with variation in the gut microbial communities residing in red-bellied lemurs. All variables except sex played a significant role in predicting GM composition. Our model had high levels of variance inflation, inhibiting our ability to determine which variables were most predictive of gut microbial composition. This inflation is likely due to red-bellied lemurs' pair-living, pair-bonded social system that leads to covariation among environmental, social, and genetic variables. Our findings highlight some of the factors that predict GMcomposition in a tightly bonded, pair-living species and identify variables that require further study. We propose that future primate microbiome studies should simultaneously consider environmental, social, and genetic factors to improve our understanding of the relationships among sociality, the microbiome, and primate ecology and evolution.

Investigation through Animal-Computer Interaction: A Proof-of-Concept Study for the Behavioural Experimentation of Colour Vision in Zoo-Housed Primates.

Zoos are an important repository of animals, which have a wide range of visual systems, providing excellent opportunities to investigate many comparative questions in sensory ecology. However, behavioural testing must be carried out in an animal welfare-friendly manner, which is practical for zoo staff. Here, we present a proof-of-concept study to facilitate behavioural research on the sensory ecology of captive primates. A system consisting of a tablet computer and an automated feeder connected wirelessly was developed and presented to captive primate species to evaluate interactions with and without previous training. A colour stimulus, analogous to the Ishihara test, was used to check the level of interaction with the device, supporting future studies on sensory ecology with zoo animals. Animals were able to use the system successfully and displayed signs of learning to discriminate between the visual stimuli presented. We identified no risk for small primates in their interactions with the experimental setup without the presence of keepers. The use of electronic devices should be approached with caution to prevent accidents, as a standard practice for environmental enrichment for larger animals (e.g., spider monkeys). In the long term, the system developed here will allow us to address complex comparative questions about the functions of different visual systems in captive animals (i.e., dichromatic, trichromatic, etc.).

Where the small things are: Modelling edge effects on mouse lemur population density and distribution in northwestern Madagascar.

Edge effects result from the penetration to varying depths and intensities, of abiotic and biotic conditions from the surrounding non-forest matrix into the forest interior. Although 70% of the world's forests are within 1 km of a forest edge, making edge effects a dominant feature of most forest habitats, there are few empirical data on inter-site differences in edge responses in primates. We used spatially explicit capture-recapture (SECR) models to determine spatial patterns of density for two species of mouse lemurs (Microcebus murinus and Microcebus ravelobensis) in two forest landscapes in northwestern Madagascar. The goal of our study was to determine if mouse lemurs displayed spatially variable responses to edge effects. We trapped animals using Sherman live traps in the Mariarano Classified Forest (MCF) and in the Ambanjabe Forest Fragment Site (AFFS) site within Ankarafantsika National Park. We trapped 126 M. murinus and 79 M. ravelobensis at MCF and 78 M. murinus and 308 M. ravelobensis at AFFS. For M. murinus, our top model predicted a positive edge response, where density increased towards edge habitats. In M. ravelobensis, our top model predicted a negative edge response, where density was lower near the forest edges and increased towards the forest interior. At regional and landscape-specific scales, SECR models estimated different density patterns between M. murinus and M. ravelobensis as a result of variation in edge distance. The spatial variability of our results using SECR models indicate the importance of studying the population ecology of primates at varying scales that are appropriate to the processes of interest. Our results lend further support to the theory that some lemurs exhibit a form of ecological flexibility in their responses to forest loss, forest fragmentation, and associated edge effects.

Guidelines and considerations for capturing and collaring wild primates: a case study with capuchin monkeys (Sapajus nigritus cucullatus).

Many aspects of the ecology, evolution and social behavior of wild-living primates remain un-explored and require further investigation. While long-term field studies are crucial for addressing conservation concerns for many primates' species, acquiring the necessary data is often challenging, often due to difficulties in locating study groups. Radio-telemetry has significantly facilitated the study of primates and other animals living in tropical forests. However, there are important practical challenges in the process of capturing and releasing animals after placement of telemetry collars. In this study, we report guidelines and considerations for capturing and collaring wild capuchin monkeys, Sapajus nigritus cucullatus, in the Atlantic Forest of Argentina. Our ultimate goal is to contribute to making captures safer, preventing harm and stress to animals when using radio-telemetry in monitoring strategies for conservation of this primate species. These methods can be useful for researchers using field capture and radio-telemetry for monitoring groups or populations of wild primates, specifically wild Sapajus.

Djaffa Mountains guereza (Colobus guereza gallarum) abundance in forests of the Ahmar Mountains, Ethiopia.

The size and density of a population are essential parameters in primate ecology and conservation. Such information, however, is still scarce for many forest primate species. The Djaffa Mountains guereza (Colobus guereza gallarum) is an endemic Ethiopian taxon for which data about its distribution and population size are missing. Therefore, we aimed to estimate the abundance and population size of the Djaffa Mountains guereza in four forests in the Ahmar Mountains southeast of the Ethiopian Rift Valley. We conducted line-transect surveys in the forests. Within an area of 183 km, we sampled 19 transects covering a distance of 75.9 km. We encountered 73 guereza clusters which most likely represent social groups. Since the detection distances and cluster sizes did not differ among the four forests, we applied a conventional distance sampling (CDS) model and estimated a population density of 20.6 clusters per square kilometer, i.e., 109.6 individuals per square kilometer or 20 061 individuals within the complete study area. This abundance is relatively high compared to other C. guereza taxa. However, given that the habitat and population of . .gallarum are already highly fragmented, further monitoring of the population and exploration of the possibilities of reconnecting its habitat should be priorities for the conservation of this taxon.

Macaca nigra in the Spotlight: Accounting for Diversity in Behavior, Ecology, and Conservation in Primates

Macaca nigra in the Spotlight: Accounting for Diversity in Behavior, Ecology, and Conservation in Primates

First Molecular Identification of Trypanosomes and Absence of Babesia sp. DNA in Faeces of Non-Human Primates in the Ecuadorian Amazon.

Trypanosomes are a group of pathogens distributed in the continents of Africa, America, Asia and Europe, and they affect all vertebrates including the neotropical primate group. Information about the trypanosome's diversity, phylogeny, ecology and pathology in non-human primates (NHPs) from the neotropical region is scarce. The objective of the study was to identify Trypanosoma and Babesia molecularly in NHPs under the phylogenetic species concept. We extracted DNA from a total of 76 faecal samples collected between 2019 and 2021, from a total of 11 non-human primate species of which 46 are from captive NHPs and 30 are free-living NHPs in the Western Amazon region of Ecuador. We did not detect DNA of Babesia sp. by polymerase chain reaction test in any of the faecal samples. However, the nested-PCR-based method revealed Trypanosoma parasites by ITS gene amplification in two faecal samples; one for the species Leontocebus lagonotus (from the captive population) and a second one for Cebus albifrons (from the free-ranging population). Maximum parsimony and likelihood methods with the Kimura2+G+I model inferred the evolutionary history of the two records, which showed an evolutionary relationship with the genus Trypanosoma. Two sequences are monophyletic with Trypanosoma. However, the number of sequences available in GenBank for their species identification is limited. The two samples present different molecular identifications and evolutionary origins in the tree topology. We are most likely referring to two different species, and two different localities of infection. We suggest that health management protocols should be implemented to prevent the transmission of blood-borne pathogens such as Trypanosoma sp. among captive populations. In addition, these protocols also protect the personnel of wildlife rehabilitation centers working in close proximity to NHPs and vice versa.

In memory of Judith Masters and Fabien Génin.

In memory of Judith Masters and Fabien Génin.

Population dynamics of the Manyara monkey (Cercopithecus mitis manyaraensis) and vervet monkey (Chlorocebus pygerythrus) in Lake Manyara National Park, Tanzania.

Estimating population densities and their trends over time is essential for understanding primate ecology and for guiding conservation efforts. From 2011 through to 2019, we counted two guenon species during seasonal road transect surveys in Lake Manyara National Park: the Tanzania-endemic Manyara monkey Cercopithecus mitis manyaraensis (International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources, IUCN, Red List category of "endangered") and the vervet monkey Chlorocebus pygerythrus (Red List category of "least concern"). To account for imperfect detectability, we analysed the data in a line distance sampling framework, fitted species-specific detection functions, and subsequently estimated seasonal densities. To test for seasonal differences and yearly trends in the species-specific density estimates, we fitted generalized additive models. Seasonal point density estimates fluctuated considerably during the 9years (2011-2019) of our study, ranging from 3 to 29 individuals km for Manyara monkeys and from 19 to 83 individuals km for vervet monkeys. Densities of both taxa did not differ seasonally, and we did not detect marked directional population trends. Our study illustrates the utility and limitations of line distance sampling for long-term primate monitoring. Beyond informing primate ecology and management, our results highlight the conservation importance of Lake Manyara National Park for primate conservation.

The Activity and Ranging Patterns of Gelada Monkeys as Behavioral Responses to the Effects of Livestock Grazing in the Simien Mountains National Park, Ethiopia

Understanding of behavioral ecology of primates in grazed lands is vital to their conservation and monitoring strategies. Here we investigated how livestock grazing within the Simien Mountains National Park affects the activity time budgeting and ranging behavior of the geladas, a monkey endemic to Ethiopian highlands. This study was carried out from February 2019 to July 2019 by stratifying the study area as grazed and nongrazed sites. Activity time pattern data were collected using 5 minutes instantaneous scan sampling within 15 minutes intervals from 7:00 to 18:00 for 10 days per month in the grazed and nongrazed sites. The ranging data were also collected by tracking the study group and recording GPS points every 15 minutes sample. The effects of livestock grazing on activity time budgets were statistically analyzed by multiple analyses of variance (MANOVA). Daily range length and home range size were estimated by employing the Open Jump toolbox (MOVEAN), and statistically tested by Mann–Whitney U test. From 3427 behavioral scans on the various activities, feeding was the most frequent (43.04%) behavioral activity followed by moving, accounting for 38.06% of the time. The study revealed that grazing has a statistically significant effect on moving and social activity time budgets. The geladas dwelling in the grazed areas of the park spent more time in moving than in the nongrazed areas. The effect of grazing on social behavior is the reverse of moving. Similarly, geladas traveled longer daily range length and cover a wider home range size in the grazed areas. Therefore, these findings of the study imply that livestock grazing is adversely affecting the behavior of gelada monkeys in the park. To minimize such effects on gelada monkeys and harmonize grazing with wildlife habitat conservation, the grazing pressure reduction strategy must be closely monitored and supported by animal feed cultivation technology.

Frontoparietal connectivity as a product of convergent evolution in rodents and primates: functional connectivity topologies in grey squirrels, rats, and marmosets

Robust frontoparietal connectivity is a defining feature of primate cortical organization. Whether mammals outside the primate order, such as rodents, possess similar frontoparietal functional connectivity organization is a controversial topic. Previous work has primarily focused on comparing mice and rats to primates. However, as these rodents are nocturnal and terrestrial, they rely much less on visual input than primates. Here, we investigated the functional cortical organization of grey squirrels which are diurnal and arboreal, thereby better resembling primate ecology. We used ultra-high field resting-state fMRI data to compute and compare the functional connectivity patterns of frontal regions in grey squirrels (Sciurus carolinensis), rats (Rattus norvegicus), and marmosets (Callithrix jacchus). We utilized a fingerprinting analysis to compare interareal patterns of functional connectivity from seeds across frontal cortex in all three species. The results show that grey squirrels, but not rats, possess a frontoparietal connectivity organization that resembles the connectivity pattern of marmoset lateral prefrontal cortical areas. Since grey squirrels and marmosets have acquired an arboreal way of life but show no common arboreal ancestor, the expansion of the visual system and the formation of a frontoparietal connectivity architecture might reflect convergent evolution driven by similar ecological niches in primates and tree squirrels.

Environmental predictors of filarial infection in Amazonian primates: Ecological factors and primate filarial infection

Filarial nematode infections are common in primates, but have received little attention in the Neotropics. Epidemiological data on filarial infections in primates are still too sparse to fully understand the complex of this parasitism, especially because of the difficulty in studying the ecology and epidemiology of wild primates.. We describe natural infections by Dipetalonema parasitizing 211 primates belonging to eight free-living primate genera in Amazonia, and assess the relationships between parasitic indicators and climatic (rainfall and river level), ecological (fruiting periods of plants) and biological (sex, species’ body mass, group size and density) factors. The overall prevalence was 64.4% (95% CI: 64.0 – 64.9); parasitic mean abundance (N filariae per individual) and parasitic mean intensity (N filariae per infected host) of infection were 11.9 (95% CI: 8.3 – 15.6) and 18.4 (95% CI: 13.4 – 23.4) filariae/individual, respectively. Although we observed differences in parasitic parameters among primate genera, there was no correlation between parasitic parameters with density, body mass or group size. Sapajus, Cebus and Lagothrix had the highest prevalence and parasitic mean intensity. Using Lagothrix lagotricha poeppigii, the most sampled species (n = 92), as a model, we found that the number of filariae per infected host was associated with fruit production in swamp forests during the dry season, the time of food scarcity. The long periods of food shortage may cause environmental stress on primates, impairing their immune defenses and leading to increased parasite load but not affecting infection prevalence. However, the lack of information on vector ecology, key to understand risk factors associated to infection rate, prevents confirming the existence of an infection pattern dependent on food availability.

Evolutionary ecology of Miocene hominoid primates in Southeast Asia

The evolutionary history and palaeoecology of orangutans remains poorly understood until today. The restricted geographic distribution of extant Pongo indicates specific ecological needs. However, it is not clear whether these needs were shared by the great diversity of fossil pongines known from the Miocene to the Pleistocene. Here we show how niche modelling of stable carbon and oxygen isotope data of the carbonate fraction of dental enamel can be used to reconstruct the paleoecology of fossil and modern pongines and associated mammal communities. We focus on Khoratpithecus ayeyarwadyensis, a Late Miocene pongine from Myanmar and the sister clade to extant orangutans, and compare it to its associated mammal fauna and other fossil and extant pongines. The results are consistent with a vertical position high up in the canopy of a forested habitat with purely C3 vegetation for K. ayeyarwadyensis as well as the contemporaneous Sivapithecus. Although their positions in the modelled isotopic niche space look similar to the ecological niche occupied by modern Pongo, a comparison of the modelled niches within the pongine clade revealed possible differences in the use of microhabitats by the Miocene apes.

Plant secondary metabolites and primate food choices: A meta-analysis and future directions.

The role of plant secondary metabolites (PSMs) in shaping the feeding decisions, habitat suitability, and reproductive success of herbivorous mammals has been a major theme in ecology for decades. Although primatologists were among the first to test these ideas, studies of PSMs in the feeding ecology of non-human primates have lagged in recent years, leading to a recent call for primatologists to reconnect with phytochemists to advance our understanding of the primate nutrition. To further this case, we present a formal meta-analysis of diet choice in response to PSMs based on field studies on wild primates. Our analysis of 155 measurements of primate feeding response to PSMs is drawn from 53 studies across 43 primate species which focussed primarily on the effect of three classes of PSMs tannins, phenolics, and alkaloids. We found a smallbut significant effect of PSMs on the diet choice of wild primates, which was largely driven by the finding that colobine primates showed a moderate aversion to condensed tannins. Conversely, there was no evidence that PSMs had a significant deterrent effect on food choices of non-colobine primates when all were combined into a single group. Furthermore, within the colobine primates, no other PSMs influenced feeding choices and we found no evidence that foregut anatomy significantly affected food choice with respect to PSMs. We suggest that methodological improvements related to experimental approaches and the adoption of new techniques including metabolomics are needed to advance our understanding of primate diet choice.

Investigating foundations for hominin fire exploitation: Savanna-dwelling chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes verus) in fire-altered landscapes

Humans' extensive use of fire is one behavior that sets us apart from all other animals. However, our ancestors' reliance on controlled forms of fire—i.e., for cooking—was likely preceded by a long familiarity with fire beginning with passive exploitation of naturally burned landscapes and followed by intermediate steps including active ecological modification via intentional burning. Here we explore our pyrophilic beginnings using observational data from savanna-dwelling chimpanzees. These data highlight the extent to which anthropogenic burning impacts the behavior and ecology of sympatric primates and provides an opportunity to study the ways in which apes living in a fire-altered world exploit opportunities presented by burning. Using monthly burn scar data and daily range use data we quantify the impact of burning episodes on chimpanzee habitat. Over the course of one dry season, approximately 74% of the total estimated range of the Fongoli community of savanna-dwelling chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes verus) was impacted by fire. We combine fire occurrences with behavioral data to test for relationships between burning and rate of encounter with food items and duration of subsequent patch residence time. Results show more frequent encounters and shorter patch residence times in burned areas. These data can be leveraged as a frame of reference for conceptualizing our extinct relatives’ behavior around fire.

Dietary ecology of the southern gelada (Theropithecus gelada obscurus) living in an Afroalpine ecosystem of the Borena Sayint National Park, Wollo, Ethiopia

Primates show dietary flexibility as a result of spatial and temporal variation in the food availability which in turn influences the ecology of a species. Southern geladas ( Theropithecus gelada obscurus ) are endemic subspecies of gelada that inhabit in north central Ethiopian Highlands. During the 18 months of the first intensive study period, we examined the feeding ecology of southern geladas and their dietary responses to seasonal variations in an Afroalpine ecosystem, Borena Sayint National Park, an important site for the conservation of biodiversity in the north central Ethiopia. We collected monthly diet data from a band of southern geladas using instantaneous scan sampling method, and monthly temporal changes in green graminoid leaves and/or forb availability data using visual inspection from the randomly selected plots. The overall diet of southern geladas at Keywasha consisted of 54.4% graminoid leaves, 9.4% graminoid underground, 9.0% graminoid seeds, 17.0% forb leaves, 7.4% forb underground and 1.5% invertebrates. The diet of geladas exhibited wide variability across months. Southern geladas spent significantly more time feeding on the graminoid leaves, and significantly less time on the graminoid and forb underground diet items during the wet season than the dry season. Graminoid leaf consumption was significantly positively correlated with monthly increment of green graminoid leaf availability. By contrast, there was a significant increase in the consumption of graminoid underground when monthly green graminoid leaf availability becomes low. The result shows that southern geladas adapt seasonal shifts in their diet consumption as staple foods changed temporally in the Ethiopian Afroalpine ecosystem. Our findings contribute to a better understanding of the dietary flexibility of primates in response to local environment conditions that may shape primate ecology and evolution.

Road-based line distance surveys overestimate densities of olive baboons.

Estimating population density and population dynamics is essential for understanding primate ecology and relies on robust methods. While distance sampling theory provides a robust framework for estimating animal abundance, implementing a constrained, non-systematic transect design could bias density estimates. Here, we assessed potential bias associated with line distance sampling surveys along roads based on a case study with olive baboons (Papio anubis) in Lake Manyara National Park (Tanzania). This was achieved by comparing density estimates of olive baboons derived from road transect surveys with density estimates derived from estimating the maximum number of social groups (via sleeping site counts) and multiplying this metric with the estimated average size of social groups. From 2011 to 2019, we counted olive baboons along road transects, estimated survey-specific densities in a distance sampling framework, and assessed temporal population trends. Based on the fitted half-normal detection function, the mean density was 132.5 baboons km-2 (95% CI: 110.4–159.2), however, detection models did not fit well due to heaping of sightings on and near the transects. Density estimates were associated with relatively wide confidence intervals that were mostly caused by encounter rate variance. Based on a generalized additive model, baboon densities were greater during the rainy seasons compared to the dry seasons but did not show marked annual trends. Compared to estimates derived from the alternative method (sleeping site survey), distance sampling along road transects overestimated the abundance of baboons more than threefold. Possibly, this overestimation was caused by the preferred use of roads by baboons. While being a frequently used technique (due to its relative ease of implementation compared to spatially randomized survey techniques), inferring population density of baboons (and possibly other species) based on road transects should be treated with caution. Beyond these methodological concerns and considering only the most conservative estimates, baboon densities in LMNP are among the highest across their geographic distribution range.

Time budgets and activity patterns of the southern gelada (Theropithecus gelada obscurus) in a human‐modified landscape, Wollo, Ethiopia

AbstractUnderstanding the behavioural ecology of primates in human disturbance areas is crucial to developing conservation management plan. Southern geladas (Theropithecus gelada obscurus) are endemic subspecies of geladas that are threatened by habitat loss and degradation in the Ethiopian Highlands. During the 18‐months period, we conducted this intensive study in an unprotected area of human‐modified landscape to examine the diurnal time budgets and activity patterns of southern geladas. We quantified the time budget data from a band of southern gelada using instantaneous scan sampling method. Southern geladas had an overall diurnal activity budget of 49.5% feeding, 17.5% resting, 16.2% moving, 13.0% grooming and 3.0% socialising. The band spent significantly more time feeding during the dry season than the wet season. However, the band spent significantly more time during the wet season than the dry season in resting and grooming activities. We observed variations in the trend of activity patterns during the daylight hours between the wet and dry seasons. We found consistent relationships between monthly time budget and food availability. Our results contribute to improve our knowledge on the behavioural ecology of gelada populations in human‐modified landscape across the Ethiopian Highlands.

Why do people visit primate tourism sites? Investigating macaque tourism in Japan and Indonesia.

Primates are popular species in wildlife tourism contexts and provide economic benefits to habitat countries where primate-based tourism activities are a part of the country's tourism economy. Primate tourism runs a broad gamut from safari-like expeditions within remote primate habitats to designated monkey parks and incidental primate tourism. In most forms of primate tourism, primate ecology and behaviour are directly influenced by humans, making these interfaces particularly relevant for examination using the lens of ethnoprimatology. While several studies have assessed the impact of tourism on primates, little is known about people's motivations for observing monkeys for recreational purposes. Here we present two case studies-the Jigokudani Monkey Park, Japan, and the Telaga Warna Nature Recreational Park, Indonesia-where we provide quantitative assessments of people's motivations for visiting managed (monkey parks) and unmanaged (incidental) monkey tourism sites. We further show that management regimes, socio-demographic attributes, previous experience of interactions with macaques, and feeding them play a role in people's desire to visit macaque tourism sites. In Japan, those who had interacted with macaques before were more likely to visit the park to observe macaques clearly and at close quarters. In contrast, respondents in Indonesia were more interested in the recreational opportunities offered by the nature reserve rather than in macaques. However, here too, people who had interacted with macaques earlier were more likely to visit incidental macaque tourist sites for the sole purpose of viewing or interacting with macaques. Almost 50% of the Japanese respondents visited the monkey park due to personal inclinations, while less than 14% of people in Indonesia visited the park of their own volition. Also, over 57% of the Japanese respondents said that visiting monkey parks helped them gain a better understanding of macaque behaviour, whereas only about 26% respondents said likewise in Indonesia. Unlike the Japanese respondents, most of the Indonesian respondents engaged in feeding macaques. These findings suggest that management regimes as well as socio-demographic attributes may influence people's motivations to visit macaque tourism sites.