Ecological Sanitation Systems Research Articles

Beyond a mediocre customer experience in the circular economy: The satisfaction of contributing to the ecological transition

This article aims to understand and explain the differences in circular (versus traditional) economy consumption habits. It explores the customer experience's role in influencing satisfaction and reuse decisions. Data is collected through a mixed-methods case study. Specifically, the article looks at an innovative ecological sanitation system for urban households aiming at collecting human waste for valorization. Among the participating households, 46 persons provided data: 12 were interviewed about their motives for and experience of using dry sanitation and participating in the waste collection process, 42 answered a user profile survey focusing on demographics and basic individual values, and 36 submitted diary entries (123 in total) providing detailed descriptions and evolutions of their experiences. Based on this rich dataset, the findings highlight that the customer experience is largely inferior to that of using traditional sanitation systems because it is inconsistent, inconvenient and requires significant customer efforts (e.g., voluntary participation, creativity, and bricolage skills). Nonetheless, this mediocre experience is counterbalanced by the customer's personal values and beliefs, as well as the satisfaction of achieving a more responsible and sustainable activity.

Constructed Wetlands planted with Lignocellulosic Grass Species for Wastewater Treatment and Biomass Utilisation

The present study evaluated the performance and treatment efficiency of tropical vertical flow constructed wetlands (VFCWs) using five different lignocellulosic grass species suitable to the tropical climate of Kerala to function as decentralized ecological sanitation systems for the treatment and utilization of wastewater. The study also investigated the biomass yield and bioethanol production potential of the grasses harvested from the VFCWs. The results indicate the significant role of plants and root zone treatment in the removal of contaminants in the VFCW systems. Among the planted VFCWs, the systems using Pennisetum purpureum and Urochloa brizantha achieved high pollutant removal efficiency for TSS, organic matter and nutrients, though there was no significant statistical difference between the two. The VFCW using Pennisetum purpureum obtained mean removal efficiencies of TSS (89.87%), BOD (87.40%), COD (79.30%), NH4-N (69.70%), Nitrates (68.80%), TN (43.27%) and Phosphates (49.80%). The mean removal efficiencies obtained in the VFCW using Urochloa brizantha were: TSS (88.90%), BOD (85.60%), COD (77.30%), NH4-N (67.10%), Nitrates (67.07%), TN (42.53%) and Phosphates (48.80%). The biomass production of Pennisetum purpureum was found to be significantly high when compared to other grasses. Ethanol production after 72 hours expressed in volume of ethanol to the volume of the total reaction mixture(v/v) was obtained high for Andropogon gayanus (10.62%) followed by Panicum maximum (7.93%).

Toward Zero Hunger Through Coupled Ecological Sanitation-Agriculture Systems

Ecological sanitation (EcoSan) systems capture and sanitize human excreta and generate organic nutrient resources that can support more sustainable nutrient management in agricultural ecosystems. An emerging EcoSan system that is implemented in Haiti and several other contexts globally couples container-based household toilets with aerobic, thermophilic composting. This closed loop sanitation system generates organic nutrient resources that can be used as part of an ecological approach to soil nutrient management and thus has the potential to contribute to Sustainable Development Goals 2 (zero hunger), 6 (clean water and sanitation for all), and 13 (climate change solutions). However, the role of organic nutrient resources derived from human excreta in food production is poorly studied. We conducted a greenhouse experiment comparing the impact of feces-derived compost on crop production, soil nutrient cycling, and nutrient losses with two amendments produced from wastewater treatment (pelletized biosolids and biofertilizer), urea, and an unfertilized control. Excreta-derived amendments increased crop yields 2.5 times more than urea, but had differing carry-over effects. After a one-time application of compost, crop production remained elevated throughout all six crop cycles. In contrast, the carry-over of crop response lasted two and four crop cycles for biosolids and biofertilizer, respectively, and was absent for urea. Soil carbon concentration in the compost amended soils increased linearly through time from 2.0 to 2.5%, an effect not seen with other treatments. Soil nitrous oxide emissions factors ranged from 0.3% (compost) to 4.6% (biosolids), while nitrogen leaching losses were lowest for biosolids and highest for urea. These results indicate that excreta-derived compost provides plant available nutrients, while improving soil health through the addition of soil organic carbon. It also improved biogeochemical functions, indicating the potential of excreta-derived compost to close nutrient loops if implemented at larger scales. If captured and safely treated through EcoSan, human feces produced in Haiti can meet up to 13, 22, and 11% of major crop needs of nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium, respectively.

Alternative Sanitation and Strategic Directives for the Well Water Security in Cotonou (Benin) and Lomé (Togo)

In the coastal cities of West Africa, land use change, rapid population growth, bad sanitation systems and poor environmental governance degrade the quality of groundwater. This study aimed to assess alternative, acceptable, affordable sanitation disposal and practices for groundwater quality rehabilitation in the cities of Cotonou and Lome. The study was based on the participatory transdisciplinary approach, field surveys, feedback from interactions with stakeholders, experiences of the practitioners and institutional consultations. This multi-stakeholder approach helped to appreciate ecological aspects of sanitation disposal and its implications on water quality improvement. SWOT model was used to analyze the relevance of assessed ecological system. Well water quality is deteriorated by traditional waste management disposal. Ecological sanitation systems are septic tanks on polyethylene, above-ground latrines and phytoremediation technique in the swamp areas. Collected wastes are used for composting and biogas production. Based on the optimist scenario at 2030 horizon, kind success factors of groundwater security are participation of citizens, existence of sanitation market, valorization of the waste by category, low-cost disposal adaptable to the individual, household and neighborhood’s scales. The strategic directions rely on funding and public policies for WASH, ecological sanitation disposal, cultural environment and good sanitation practices for emergence of new sanitation system to secure and sustain well water quality. But the social acceptability of ecological disposal is limited by the society’s multicultural heritage. These findings could help in decision-making concerning urban groundwater quality protection in the African coastal cities.

AN EFFICIENT APPROACH TO MANAGE DOMESTIC WASTEWATER IN SMART CITY

Abstract. The adoption of an ecological sanitation system, meeting the requirements hygienic and sanitary, constitutes a feasible and technically and economically acceptable solution in the future smart city. This new sanitation concept has the advantage of solving the problems of pathogens of human waste at source, thus offering the possibility of reusing them after treatment (recycling) in order to improve the standard of living of the population and protect the environment. The aim of this study is to evaluate the efficiency of a vertical Multi-Soil-Layering system (MSL) system to treat domestic wastewater under three hydraulic loading rates: 250 L/m2/day, 350 L/m2/day and 500 L/m2/day, in Moroccan conditions. To do this, a vertical MSL system measuring 20cm × 60cm × 78cm (L × W × H) was designed to treat domestic wastewater and his performance was investigated. The results showed high removal of organic matters and nutrients under the three hydraulic loads tested; the performance averages recorded are upper than 84 % for organic matters, 83.1 ± 7.2 % for ammonium and 72.4 ± 14.1 % for orthophosphate. The quality of the treated wastewater was evaluated according to Moroccan reject limit value. Consequently, this system could be considered an effective solution to be adopted for decentralized domestic wastewater treatment in Moroccan conditions.

Sanitation and the commons: The role of collective action in sanitation use

A lack of safe sanitation threatens human wellbeing and has overlooked implications for environmental sustainability. There is a growing need to understand community-level drivers of sanitation use, as poor sanitation in a few households can create risks for neighboring households and contaminate the surrounding environment. This paper considers sanitation in the context of common-pool resources, focusing on processes of collective action and sustainable sanitation use, and draws on a case study conducted in Koassanga, Plateau-Central, Burkina Faso, where an ecological sanitation system intervention was implemented. Using a qualitative study design, 26 semi-structured interviews were conducted with residents using a social capital framework for water, sanitation and hygiene. Data were thematically analyzed to understand how collective action played a role in sustaining use of the sanitation system. The case study findings indicated that social capital characterized by membership in local groups and associations may have contributed to successful implementation of the intervention and ending open defecation, through normalization and monitoring of the use of ecological sanitation systems. In addition, community leaders played prominent roles in ensuring that collective management of the sanitation systems was sustained. These findings highlight potential for further examination of sanitation systems from a common pool resources perspective to identify other factors that contribute to long-term sustainability. With growing interest in community-led sanitation approaches, this understanding can inform more effective strategies for governments and NGOs to promote the health of entire communities to achieve SDG targets for universal coverage.

Understanding sustained use of ecological sanitation in rural Burkina Faso

Access to safe sanitation services is fundamental for healthy and productive lives, but in rural Burkina Faso only around 7% of the population uses improved sanitation. Ecological sanitation (ecosan) systems that allow safe agricultural reuse of nutrients in human waste have been promoted in these areas, as a way to meet sanitation needs while contributing to food security. However, little is known about the success of these interventions in terms of both sustained use of the toilet and safe excreta reuse practices. We assessed the use of ecosan systems in 44 rural communities where such interventions had taken place. Structured interviews and observations conducted at 520 randomly selected concessions (residential properties), suggested a large-scale shift from open defecation to ecosan toilet use. However, only 58% of surveyed concessions reported ever emptying the ecosan toilet vault, which is required for optimal long-term functioning. Concessions that received ecosan training programmes with a greater emphasis on agricultural reuse were more strongly associated with toilet use and emptying than those that whose training focused more on sanitation access and health benefits. The findings suggest that the safe agricultural reuse of nutrients can provide a strong motivation for long-term adoption of improved sanitation among rural smallholders.

Design and Management Features of Ecological Sanitation

Much has been learned about ecological sanitation systems from the many units in the world today. In China and Vietnam, hundreds of thousands of rural households have double-varied toilets and many recycle their products in agriculture. This study focuses on a new improvement for the success of ecological sanitation project by using urine diverting dehydrating toilets including the design and management features of ecological sanitation toilet systems, so that mistakes can be avoided. Moreover, this will provide an overview of the variables that influence the choice of an appropriate sanitation system and the possibilities in dealing with liquids and in sanitizing solids. Ecological sanitation is based on three fundamental principles: preventing pollution rather than attempting to control it after we pollute; sanitizing the urine and the faeces; and using the safe products for agricultural products for agricultural purposes. This approach can be characterized as ―sanitize and recycle‖. This approach is cycle -a sustainable, closed-loop system. It treats human excreta as a resource. Urine and faeces are stored and processed on site and then, it necessary, further processed off site unit they are free of disease organisms. The nutrients contained in the excreta are then recycled by using them in agriculture. Environmentalist gave various perceptions as to the factors that affected sanitation of a certain locality because some claimed that saving the environment depends on the local people or those who reside in the municipality. Some of the people in the urban areas have their own way of disposing their human excreta. This should not be in the case throwing waste material in the river is a grave sin to the environment. Since proper sanitation has been overridden, many volunteers in the Philippines and NGO's find ways to help in the mobilization of projects that aim to educate the people in the slum areas to properly dispose their human waste. The most common problem in the provincial areas is the water supply and proper sewage systems, Sometimes the supply is not adequate enough in order to sustain the needs of the local community prompting the people in the local community to complain about the situation (1). Filipino engineers especially those in the government sectors have been trying to find various ways on how to improve the sanitation practice of the Filipino people (2). In coordination with the government health agencies, they conduct seminars on sanitation practice showing both the right and the wrong habits. The health officers who conduct this have been trained by the Department of health and thru an extensive study. They have been able to implement the right practice. But still there would be some resistance in the group. Various complain in the locality such as sewer system, water supply, and cost of the installation of sanitation facility. This factor has played a very vital role in making it hard for the government health officers to fully implement the right sanitation practice.

Ascaris and Escherichia coli Inactivation in an Ecological Sanitation System in Port-au-Prince, Haiti.

The goal of this study was to evaluate the microbial die-off in a latrine waste composting system in Port-au-Prince, Haiti. Temperature data and samples were collected from compost aged 0 – 12+ months. Samples collected from compost bin centers and corners at two depths were assessed for moisture content, E. coli concentration, and Ascaris spp. viability. Center temperatures in compost bins were all above 58 °C, while corner temperatures were 10 – 20 °C lower. Moisture content was 67 ± 10% in all except the oldest compost. A 4-log reduction in E. coli was observed over the first sixteen weeks of composting at both locations and depths, after which E. coli was undetectable (LOD: 142 MPN g-1 dry weight). In new compost, 10.4% and 8.3% of Ascaris eggs were viable and fully embryonated, respectively. Percent viability dropped to zero in samples older than six weeks. These findings indicate that the Haitian EcoSan composting process was effective in inactivating E. coli and Ascaris spp. in latrine waste within sixteen weeks. This study is one of the first to document efficacy of an ecological sanitation system under field conditions and provides insight into composting methods and monitoring for other international settings.

Norovirus and rotavirus survival in urine collected from a public ecological sanitation system in Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso.

Urine from urine-diversion toilets (UDTs) is routinely used as fertilizer for urban agriculture in Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso. Because urine from UDTs can be accidentally spoiled by feces, we determined whether virulent enteric viruses could persist in urine that is used for agricultural purposes and pose a threat to human health. Urine samples (N = 60) were first collected from 42 UDTs during the months of January and February 2012 in Ouagadougou and screened negative for the presence of norovirus (NoV) and group A rotavirus (RV). Composite urine from five collection sites was used to determine whether spiked murine norovirus (MNV) and group A bovine rotavirus (boRVA) could remain infectious at 15, 25, and 42 °C over an incubation period of 42 days in phosphate buffered saline (control) and urine. For both viruses, infectivity was determined by plaque assay and the presence of viral genome was evaluated by real-time RT-PCR. A decrease in the infectious titer was observed in composite urines that were experimentally seeded with MNV and boRVA. The decrease in the infectious titer was greater for MNV than for boRVA. Given that MNV was more labile to urine than boRVA was, MNV and boRVA genomes were still detectable after the 42 and 49 days incubation period for MNV and boRVA, respectively. Our data using substitutes of human NoV and RV suggested that there is a virucidal activity of urine against RVs and NoVs, given that the effect was lesser for RV. In spite of disappointing results for boRVA, the use of urine as fertilizer is still promising provided that future safety studies are extended to other enteric viruses.

Application of the urban water use model for urban water use management purposes.

The aim of this work is to present an application of the urban water use (UWU) model, which is a support decision tool to define the best group of efficient water use measures for UWU management purposes. Therefore, the UWU was developed under integrated urban water management (IUWM) and strategic planning principles to promote a systemic approach for decision taking. The IUWM considers the interfaces between water service systems, while by strategic planning it is possible to elaborate a vision to be achieved in future scenarios. Specifically to define the best measure group of efficient water use, the UWU has many alternatives for these measures, which are based on water demand management, decentralized sanitation, ecological sanitation and sustainable urban drainage system philosophies. In this context, the UWU application presented was developed for Seara city, Santa Catarina State, Brazil. In this application a vision and five scenarios were built. The measure groups were composed by greywater systems, filterstrips, water saving devices in buildings, and water loss reduction in water supply systems and wastewater treatment system. In this context the UWU model was applied. The measure group that presented the highest effectiveness was based on the water demand management and decentralized sanitation strategies.

History and Technology of Terra Preta Sanitation

In order to reach the Millennium Development Goals for significantly reducing the number of people without access to adequate sanitation, new holistic concepts are needed focusing on economically feasible closed-loop ecological sanitation systems rather than on expensive end-of-pipe technologies. An analysis of a former civilization in the Amazon (nowadays Brazil) highlights the possibility to close the loop with a more sustainable lifestyle integrating soil fertility, food security, waste management, water protection and sanitation, renewable energy. Terra Preta do Indio is the anthropogenic black soil produced by ancient cultures through the conversion of bio-waste, fecal matter and charcoal into long-term fertile soils. These soils have maintained high amounts of organic carbon several thousand years after they were abandoned. Deriving from these concepts, Terra Preta Sanitation (TPS) has been re-developed and adopted. TPS includes urine diversion, addition of a charcoal mixture and is based on lactic-acid-fermentation with subsequent vermicomposting. Lacto-fermentation is a biological anaerobic process that generates a pre-stabilization of the mixture. The main advantage of lacto-fermentation is that no gas and no odor is produced. What makes it particularly interesting for in-house systems even in urban areas. Instead, vermicomposting is an aerobic decomposition process of the pre-digested materials by the combined action of earthworms and microorganisms. It transforms the carbon and nutrients into the deep black, fertile and stable soil that can be utilized in agriculture. No water, ventilation or external energy is required. Starting from ancient Amazonian civilizations traditional knowledge, the aim of this work is to present TPS systems adopted nowadays.

Quality of Human Urine Used as Fertilizer: Case of an Ecological Sanitation System in Ouagadougou Peri-Urban Areas-Burkina Faso

The use in agriculture of excreta from urine-diversion toilets can be an alternative solution to the lack of sanitation and high costs of mineral fertilizers inherent to developing countries. The objective of this study was to evaluate the hygienic quality of urine used as fertilizer through an ecological sanitation system in Ouagadougou peri-urban areas. Chemical and microbiological analyses were performed in urine samples taken before and after thirty (30) days of storage in jerry cans exposed to sunlight. The concentrations of 7.0 g/l; 3.5 and 9.6 g/l of ammonia nitrogen for mean, minimum and maximum respectively, are obtained in unstored urine samples. These concentrations did not practically vary with the storage. On average, values of other chemical parameters analyzed in stored urine were as follows: pH, 8.8; phosphorus (P), 0.3 g/l; potassium (K), 1.9 g/l; total dissolved solids (TDS), 21.0 g/l; cadmium (Cd), 154.3 μg/l; copper (Cu), 5.2 μg/l; lead (Pb), 15.2 μg/l; chromium (Cr), 6.1 μg/l; nickel (Ni), 154.0 μg/l. Escherichia coli, staphylococci, enterococci, Salmonella and spores of Clostridium perfringens were detected in unstored urine samples, with 26% of fecal contamination rate. The time of storage (30 days) under sunlight was enough for almost all bacteria removal in urine samples. Although the fertilizing value of urine was confirmed, it would be important to take account of the best practices on applying in soils, because of the high TDS contents. Also, the risk linked to micropollutants in urine-based fertilizers could be negligible in view of low quantities. The results obtained in this study prove that after 30 days of exposure to sunlight urine collected via eco-toilet becomes bacteriologically sanitized, and can therefore be used to fertilize soils. However, it is necessary to demonstrate the inactivation of other groups of enteric microorganisms in human urine during storage.

Pathogen reduction efficiency of on-site treatment processes in eco-sanitation system

An experimental study was conducted to assess the pathogen removal efficiency of primary treatment of ecological sanitation (eco-san) system. Ash, lime and soil were used as covering and treatment materials of faeces in the system. A significant rise in pH was observed when the faeces were treated with lime and ash, with a pH value of 11.3 and 9, respectively. Lime treatment was effective in complete destruction of faecal coliforms within 24 h while ash treatment took 30 days of storage to give the same result. On the other hand, no immediate destruction of Ascaris ova was observed during primary treatment of eco-san faeces. Dehydration and storage were other parameters which were considered in the experiment. Faecal coliforms tolerated a moisture content of 3% in untreated faeces while a large number of Ascaris lumbricoides eggs were inactivated by the same level of desiccation, even in the absence of alkaline treatment. The study showed a strong direct relationship between moisture content and viability of Ascaris egg (r = 0.806, p = 0.01) and a negative correlation between viability of eggs and storage time (r = -0.895, p = 0.01). Generally, the treatment methods used in this experiment showed a substantial potential of faeces sanitization, with removals ranging from 54 to 100% after a minimum of 40 days storage.

Ecological sanitation: Principles, technologies and project examples for sustainable wastewater and excreta management

In order to reach the UN Millennium Development Goals for significantly reducing the number of people without access to adequate sanitation, new holistic concepts are needed, focusing on economically feasible closed-loop ecological sanitation systems rather than on expensive end-of-pipe technologies, thus enabling all countries to finance and maintain sustainable sanitary systems. Such ecological sanitation systems advance a new philosophy of dealing with what to date has been considered as merely waste and wastewater. They are based on the systematic implementation of the reuse and recycling of nutrients, organics and water as a hygienically safe, closed-loop and holistic alternative to conventional solutions. Over the last few years an increasing number of pilot and demonstration ecosan projects have been implemented worldwide. These have contributed to the further development of a variety of ecosan technologies and operating and reuse options and have provided a large amount of experience with this new, holistic approach. In the following, the principles of ecological sanitation are presented, an overview on the range of ecosan technologies is given and several successful ecological sanitation projects are described.

Perspectives on sustainable wastewater treatment technologies and reuse options in the urban areas of the Mediterranean region

This paper discusses several options to achieve sustainability in wastewater treatment in urban areas of the Mediterranean region. The first was by decentralizing the treatment rather than installing expensive sewer systems that combine and increase the volume of the waste. The next involved choosing an appropriate treatment technology for the community where several types proposed included lagoons/wetlands, upflow anaerobic sludge blanket (UASB), and soil aquifer treatment (SAT). The common characteristic of all of the described types is that they encourage “zero-discharge” technology. This cyclical, rather than linear approach includes the reuse of the treated effluent for agricultural reuse. The reuse of the wastewater decreases the money spent on fertilizers and it is considered safe, since it has been treated for microorganisms. The traditional linear treatment systems must be transformed into the cyclical treatment to promote the conservation of water and nutrient resources. Using organic waste nutrient cycles, from point-of-generation to point-of-production, closes the resource loop and provides an approach for the management of valuable wastewater resources. The urban areas of many Mediterranean countries are growing rapidly, and ecological sanitation systems must be implemented that are sustainable and have the ability to adapt and grow with the community's sanitation needs. In order to decide what the appropriate treatment system is, the developer must consider the area's climate, topography, and socioeconomic factors. There is still a great need in this area for research to improve or optimize the current methods of wastewater treatment. The result of increased attention to this topic will improve the health, economic, and agricultural conditions of a developing community.

Life cycle assessment of ecological sanitation system for small-scale wastewater treatment

Ecological sanitation (EcoSan) concepts, relying on an environmentally sound management of water, nutrient and energy fluxes, have been poorly characterized in literature and are widely ignored by public planning authorities, architects or engineers. A comparative life cycle assessment (LCA) of an EcoSan system at an office building and of conventional systems was carried out in order to provide practical data and information to (partially) fill this gap. Compared to conventional systems, EcoSan can reduce the contribution to ecosystem quality damage by more than 60%. EcoSan leads, however, to higher damages on resources and human health and higher impact on climate change. Key improvement possibilities and research needs related to these results are discussed throughout the paper. Ecological sanitation appears to be a promising alternative to small-scale wastewater treatment. At higher scales, low water consumption conventional systems are better performing and are not likely to be replaced by EcoSan systems in the short term. Standard conventional systems have very poor environmental performances and should be upgraded as far as possible.

GTZ Supported Ecosan Projects in India

To promote the ecological sanitation approach in India, the Indian Innovative Ecological Sanitation Network (IIESN) was established through a joint effort supported by the GTZ, local partners in India and other international partners. IIESN is expected to develop innovative and socially accepted ecological sanitation systems for India and explore operational, institutional and economical models for the implementation of those ecological sanitation systems. Current activities include the implementation of several demonstration projects in different areas of India. The projects comprise e.g. eco-friendly public toilets, school and individual toilets. The flexibility of the ecosan approach allows its incorporation in various local situations and adapted to the local reuse opportunities. Technologies of the demonstration projects comprise urine separating dehydration toilets, waterless urinals, urine storage, greywater treatment and black- or brownwater treatment with anaerobic digestion and constructed wetlands. Reuse options are the use of urine, dried faeces and sludge for fertilisation, use of treated water (greywater, kitchen wastewater, anal cleansing water, black- or brownwater) for irrigation and beautification and use of biogas for cooking,

Anaerobic digestion of blackwater from vacuum toilets and kitchen refuse in a continuous stirred tank reactor (CSTR)

The objective of this research was mesophilic anaerobic digestion of blackwater from vacuum toilets (BW) and kitchen refuse (KR) in a CSTR within an ecological sanitation system. A detailed investigation of the BW characteristics was carried out. Research on anaerobic digestion was performed with CSTR of 101 volume at HRT of 10, 15 and 20 days. The digestion of BW at 20 days HRT showed stable performance without inhibition effects, in spite of relatively high ammonium concentrations. The removal of total and particulate COD was 61% and 53%, respectively, and the methane yield 10/CH4/cap/day. The addition of kitchen refuse (KR) improved the performance of the CSTR in terms of COD removal efficiency and methane yield. At 20 days HRT the removal of total and particulate COD increased up to 71% and 67%, respectively, and the methane yield to 27/CH4/cap/day. The results at 15 days HRT showed similar performance. At HRT of 10 days, the anaerobic treatment was limited but reached steady state conditions at higher VFA concentrations in the effluent, with a decrease of COD removal of 30 to 33% and of methane yields of 19 to 21%.

Cultural preferences in designing ecological sanitation systems in North West Frontier Province, Pakistan

Ecological sanitation has been shown to be economically feasible and environmentally sustainable. However, cultural factors affecting the choice of sanitation solutions have not yet been sufficiently investigated, particularly not in Muslim communities. To understand the perceptions of rural Muslim communities regarding alternative sanitation systems, members of households, key informants and women and men's focus groups in Machaki village in the district of Karak, North West Frontier Province (NWFP), were interviewed. A menu of both ecological and conventional sanitation options was put forward for consideration. All respondents were strongly opposed to the urine-separating latrines and in favor of flush toilets. They see any form of latrines as an age-old fashion, backwards and a matter of taboo, while flush toilets are considered prestigious and desirable. Muslim practices of anal cleansing together with the strict religious prohibition of contact with urine and faeces are factors influencing the reluctance towards latrines. The physical appearance of faeces and urine in latrines is repulsive to people. However, the material is less objectionable once it has disappeared in water and relocated to a treatment site. The rural community showed interest in the construction of improved sanitation consisting of flush toilets and an underground sewerage system and recycling of plant nutrients from urine and faeces through treatment in constructed wetlands. The study underlines the importance of incorporating cultural preferences in the planning of improved sanitation, particularly when designing low-cost ecological systems.