Ecological Indicator Values Research Articles

Vegetation Dynamics Studies Based on Ellenberg and Landolt Indicator Values: A Review

Understanding the dynamics and system of interrelationships between habitats and plant communities is key to making reliable predictions about sustainable land use, biodiversity conservation and the risks of environmental crises. At the same time, assessing the complex of environmental factors that determine the composition, structure and dynamics of plant communities is usually a long, time-consuming and expensive process. In this respect, the assessment of habitats on the basis of the indicator properties of the plants is of great interest. The aim of our study was to carry out a comprehensive review of vegetation dynamics studies based on the Ellenberg and Landolt indicator values in the last five years (2019–2023). We identified their strengths and priority areas for further research, which will contribute to improving the ecological indicator values for studying vegetation dynamics. The analysis of publications was carried out based on the recommendations of PRISMA 2020 and the VOSviewer software(version 1.6.18). The wide geographical range and high reliability of Landolt and Ellenberg indicator values for the study of different plant communities and variations in their dynamics are demonstrated. At the same time, the application of these environmental indicator values has its peculiarities. For example, the Ellenberg indicator values show a wider research geography and are more often used to study the dynamics of forest ecosystems than the Landolt indicator values, which are more often used to study disturbed landscapes and the dynamics of individual species. However, these methods have been used with almost the same frequency for grasslands, wetlands and coastal vegetation. The citation analysis confirmed the high interest in the environmental indicator values and their widespread use in research, but also revealed the weak development of a network of relationships. This suggests that modern researchers are not well aware of, and rarely use, the results of research carried out in recent years, especially if they are based on indicator values other than those used by them. At the same time, a number of unresolved issues are clearly identified, which require additional research and a consolidation of research teams if they are to be addressed more successfully. We hope that the results of this meta-analysis will provide the impetus for further development of the concept of environmental indicators and help researchers to overcome the current questions around applying indicator values in the study of vegetation dynamics, as well as help researchers to understand the strengths of this methodology.

“Iron chlorosis paradox” in calcicoles and calcifuges from European dry grasslands: A meta-analysis

Iron (Fe) deficiency-related chlorosis (lime chlorosis) and the “paradox of iron chlorosis” in calcicole and calcifuge plants are unresolved problems. We performed a meta-analysis of our previous studies to determine whether calcicoles are more resistant to lime chlorosis than calcifuges are, whether lime chlorosis is Fe chlorosis per se and what is the source of the “paradox of iron chlorosis” in grassland plants. We found that both calcicoles and calcifuges are susceptible to chlorosis when grown on alkaline soil. In general, lime chlorosis does not result from Fe deficiency but is likely associated with manganese (Mn). Additionally, our analyses revealed that Ecological Indicator Values for Europe for soil reaction (R EIVEs) are not random to experimentally determined calcicole/calcifuge behavior but are not straightforward. Ultimately, neither the experimentally determined calcicole index nor the R EIVEs explained the microelemental nutrition of grassland plants in general (except for Zn acquisition), which highlights the need for species ecology-oriented studies to understand these phytocenoses.

Ökologische Zeigerwerte der Gefässpflanzen Österreichs

Abstract Ecological indicator values for Austrian vascular plants. Ecological indicator values of plants serve as indirect indicators for the status of ecological parameters in absence of physico-chemical measurements at place. Ellenberg introduced seven parameters which are namely light (L), temperature (T), continentality (K), moisture (F), reaction (R), nutrients (N), and salt (S), to define optima of plant growth under natural conditions along gradients scaled to nine levels. The moisture gradient is even extended to twelve levels and additional codes give information about the tolerance of facultative flooding or seasonal drought. Species that lack distinct optima and are present over a zone of more than four levels of the respective gradients are called indifferent (i). Plants that show optima situated towards both ends of the scale for parameters M and R are classified as bimodal (b) for the first time in national records of indicator values. Broad amplitudes and indistinct optima of species presences along the scales are not indicated separately due to the lack of available data. For 4902 vascular plants we provide indicator values that are valid for the Republic of Austria (holds for L, T, F, R, N, S). The values for continentality (K) consider the whole distribution area of the species. Comparisons with indicator value systems from neighboring countries show some shifts in the number of species assigned to the indicator levels but the histograms do not differ very much. Apparently, such shifts depend on the length of the ecological gradients available in the respective region but also on the regional pool of species and subspecific ecotypes.

Between-year weather differences and long-term environmental trends both contribute to observed vegetation changes in a plot resurvey study.

Repeated surveys of vegetation plots offer a viable tool to detect fine-scale responses of vegetation to environmental changes. In this study, our aim was to explore how the species composition and species richness of dry grasslands changed over a period of 17 years, how these changes relate to environmental changes and how the presence of spring ephemerals, which may react to short-term weather fluctuations rather than long-term climatic trends, may influence the results. A total of 95 plots was surveyed in 2005 and resurveyed in 2022 in dry grasslands of the Kiskunság Sand Ridge (Hungary, Eastern Central Europe), where there has been a significant increase in mean annual temperature during the last decades, while no trends in precipitation can be identified. Db-RDA was performed to reveal compositional changes. The changes in environmental conditions and naturalness state were assessed using ecological and naturalness indicator values. We also compared per-plot richness of all species, native species and non-native species of the old and the new relevés. All analyses were repeated after removing all spring ephemerals. We found clear temporal changes in species composition. Mean temperature indicator values increased, while mean soil moisture indicator values decreased during the 17 years. Also, decreasing per-plot richness was detected both for all species and for native species, while mean naturalness increased. After the removal of spring ephemerals, the compositional changes were less obvious although still significant. The increase in the temperature indicator values remained significant even without the spring ephemerals. However, the decrease in the moisture indicator values, the decrease in the number of all species and native species, as well as the increase in naturalness indicator values disappeared when spring ephemerals were excluded from the analyses. Our study demonstrates that between-year weather differences and long-term environmental trends both contribute to observed vegetation changes.

Haymaking complemented by moderate disturbances can sustain and restore species-rich alpine to subalpine grasslands

AbstractThe high plant diversity in alpine to subalpine grasslands is threatened by the abandonment of land use. In addition, changing environmental conditions might lead to vegetation shifts even when traditional land use is maintained, as observed in grasslands in Switzerland during the last decades. Maintaining and restoring the diversity of such grasslands might therefore require modified management methods. We conducted a six-year experiment to assess the responses of plant species richness, mean ecological indicator values, and vegetation composition to five management treatments, including scraping as additional management measure: haymaking (in autumn), haymaking complemented by scraping (i.e. manual raking) in autumn, haymaking complemented by scraping in spring, only scraping in spring, and abandonment of land use. We hypothesized that haymaking complemented by scraping in either season would remove additional biomass and increase species richness by creating open patches that can reduce inter-specific competition and promote species establishment. We found positive effects of haymaking complemented by scraping on plant species richness and habitat quality, indicated by the increased mean indicator value for light. Abandonment showed the opposite effects and increased mean indicator values for nutrients. Interestingly, haymaking combined with scraping in autumn promoted the development of the vegetation towards the composition similar to the resident vegetation type. Our findings show that extensive land use is essential to maintain species-rich alpine to subalpine grasslands. Further, they imply that modified land use can compensate for the negative developments such as reduced habitat quality and species richness caused by environmental changes and help restore the vegetation.

Recognising the role of ruderal species in restoration of degraded lands

Ruderal plants are an important component of plant communities that develop on the range of anthropogenically degraded lands. Yet they were highly neglected and not recognised as desirable for restoration purposes. The aim of this study was to analyse the potential for using ruderal species in restoration processes and to identify preliminary criteria for species selection that could be included in ecological restoration of degraded man-made habitats under future conditions of increased human disturbance and climate changes. The desirable characteristics of the species depend primarily on the type of habitat to be restored, with plant height, specific leaf area, rooting depth and seed characteristics being the most important traits. The recognised ecosystem services of the species analysed show that the provisioning and regulating services are well represented, particularly erosion control, pollination, phytoremediation and other soil quality improvements. Most of the dominant and diagnostic ruderal species from the man-made habitats of the north-western Balkan Peninsula are sensitive to climate change and their potential distribution range is expected to decrease at the European scale. Higher certain ecological indicator values, as well as values for disturbance severity, frequency and soil disturbance indices were found for species that are expected to increase their range. Ruderal species are becoming increasingly important for restoration purposes, as the focus shifts to the significance of early successional species. The inclusion of ruderal species in the restoration of degraded sites should be based on criteria such as: non-invasiveness, plant traits favourable for colonisation (height, SLA, seed traits, rooting depth), values of ecological and disturbance indices, provision of ecosystem services, and change of distribution range under changing climate conditions.

Impacts of climate warming, pollution, and management on the vegetation composition of Central European beech forests

Over the past century, climate warming, nitrogen deposition, acidic rain, widespread disturbance events, adaptive management, and natural stand maturation have substantially altered the composition and structure of forests. However, the absence of historical data on the environment makes it difficult to prove these long-term effects. Ecological indicator values based on plant species characteristics offer a promising approach to detect presumed changes at relevant spatial scales (i.e., site level). In this study, we discerned the shifts in taxa composition of principal Central European beech forests and their associated environmental drivers by integrating three data sources: (1) 254 historical (1937 – 1948) and resurveyed (2019 – 2022) vegetation relevés of beech-dominated forests sites in the Swiss Jura mountains, (2) derived ecological indicator values for vascular plants regarding temperature, soil moisture, micro-climatic conditions, soil nutrients, pH, humus layer, and light availability, and (3) related data on disturbance/management intensity in these forest sites over the past 75 years, categorized as ‘undisturbed’ and ‘disturbed’ sites. We found a significant decrease in alpha diversity (taxa richness per site) on ‘undisturbed’ sites (loss of 7.0 ± 1.48 taxa) but stability on ‘disturbed’ sites (gain of 2.1 ± 5.71 taxa). Both beta (Jaccard dissimilarity) and gamma diversity (overall taxa richness) increased over the study period. The average ecological indicator values per site (EIV‾s) consistently indicated climate warming impacts on all sites ranging from 390 to 1480 m a.s.l., while effects of acidic rain on soil pH and nitrogen deposition on soil fertility were negligible, except in densely populated lowland forest areas. The EIV‾s for light and micro-climatic conditions differed between ‘undisturbed’ and ‘disturbed’ sites, indicating darker and more oceanic, and more open and continental conditions, respectively. The decrease in alpha diversity on ‘undisturbed’ sites corresponded primarily with reduced light availability, suggesting that stand maturation is the main driver of taxa loss while climate warming and pollution mainly affected composition rather than taxa richness. In contrast, the rise in beta and gamma diversity likely stems from changes in forest management and disturbance regimes, which have increased structural diversity with various micro-climatic niches enriching the taxa pool. In conclusion, our study demonstrates the ability to differentiate the profound effects of climate warming and pollution agents on forest composition and underscores the critical role of adaptive management in mitigating these impacts. By fostering structural diversity and biodiversity, adaptive management enhances the resilience of forests, enabling them to better adapt to evolving environmental conditions.

Ecological indicator values of understorey plants perform poorly to infer forest microclimate temperature

AbstractQuestionEcological indicator values (EIVs) reflect species‘ optimal conditions on an environmental gradient, such as temperature. Averaged over a community, they are used to quantify thermophilization stemming from climate change, i.e. the reshuffling of communities toward more warm‐adapted species. In forests, understorey plant communities do not keep up with global warming and accumulate a climatic debt. Although the causes are still debated, this thermal lag may be partly explained by forest microclimate buffering. For the first time, we test whether community means of EIVs are able to capture microclimate (here, under forest canopies) temperature across, or also within forests.Location157 forest plots across three French deciduous forests covering a large macroclimatic gradient.MethodsTo assess whether EIVs can be used to infer the mean and range of microclimate temperature in forests, we measured understorey air temperature for ca. 1 year (10 months) with sensors located 1 m above the ground. We surveyed bryophytes and vascular plants within 400‐m2 plots, and computed floristic temperature from ordinal‐scale EIVs (Ellenberg, Julve) and degree‐scale EIVs (ClimPlant, Bryophytes of Europe Traits) for both temperature and continentality, i.e. temperature annual range. Finally, we fitted linear models to assess whether EIVs could explain the mean and range of microclimate temperature in forests.ResultsVascular plant and bryophyte communities successfully reflected differences in mean annual temperatures across forests but largely failed to do so for microclimate variation within forests. Bryophytes did not perform better than vascular plants to infer microclimate conditions. The annual range of microclimate temperatures was poorly associated with ordinal‐scale EIVs for continentality but was positively correlated with degree‐scale EIVs for annual range within lowland forests, especially for vascular plant communities.ConclusionOverall, the capabilities of EIVs to infer microclimate was inconsistent. Refined EIVs for temperature are needed to capture forest microclimates experienced by understorey species.

Silaum silaus (L.) Schinz and Thell.—Habitat Conditions and Variation in Selected Characteristics of Populations at Different Densities

Grasslands are one of the most diverse and species-rich ecosystems in the agricultural landscape of Central Europe. However, they are gradually being overgrown or transformed into arable fields due to their abandonment and the intensification of economic activities. This leads to a drastic decline in biodiversity and the disappearance of many rare species, e.g., Silaum silaus. Research on Silaum silaus populations was conducted in the years 2020 and 2022. Data were obtained from two Natura 2000 sites. The Jaćmierz site is located in a dispersed range of Silaum silaus in south-eastern Poland. The site at Zagórzyce is located in a dense range of the species in the south-western part of the country. Research on the habitat conditions was conducted on two permanent study surfaces with the dimensions of 10 × 10 m. This research included a soil study and measurements of herbaceous vegetation. To determine the habitat conditions, use was also made of Ellenberg ecological indicator values. At each site, 10 phytosociological relevés were conducted with the Braun-Blanquet method. In each study year, the manner of land use was determined. For detailed population study, one permanent surface of the dimensions 10 × 10 m was marked out, on which each year the generative and vegetative specimens were counted and biometric studies were conducted on 30 randomly chosen generative specimens. The species occurred in two different meadow communities (Arrhenatheretum elatioris, Molinietum caeruleae), which were characterised by different habitat conditions, and the greatest differences were evident in the chemical properties of the soil and in the method of management. The meadows at Jaćmierz were mowed twice a year, while at Zagórzyce mowing was performed once every two years. The communities were also varied in terms of flora, characterised by a high species richness and a high Shannon–Wiener index. Silaum silaus had significantly greater numbers and an over four times higher cover coefficient at Jaćmierz. The largest differences in the analysed traits of the species occurred in the case of generative traits. It was observed that management practices at Jaćmierz had a strong influence on the condition of specimens and the population size of Silaum silaus, which was much better preserved at this site.

New fungal non-pollen palynomorphs from moss polsters collected from the Białowieża Forest (NE Poland)

This paper reports on new, previously undescribed non-pollen palynomorphs (NPPs) of fungal origin preserved in moss polsters in a forest environment of a temperate zone. Modern NPPs were recovered from moss samples from 114 sites located in different types of forest ecosystems of Białowieża Forest, north-eastern Poland – a forest complex with a high degree of naturalness, similar to forests that covered large areas of Europe in the past.98 types of fungal NPPs were identified, of which 20 morphotypes presented here are considered new, not previously described. Half of the new remains could be identified to species or genus level, thereby conferring ecological indicator value to them. Each new, determined NPP can be a useful tool in environmental reconstructions.This study shows that moss polsters in forested areas contain many undescribed NPPs, the description and analysis of which can deliver additional ecological information about ecosystems.

LandS: Vegetation modeling based on Ellenberg's ecological indicator values

We present LandS, a new version of the Gras Model. The Gras Model was designed to simulate grassland development at local scales based on Ecological Indicator Values (EIVs) for different grassland management practices. In LandS, we complemented the existing set of EIVs with a second set representing several environmental factors: light, moisture, temperature, soil pH and nitrogen, also known as Ellenberg's EIVs. These new EIVs make the model more versatile and applicable to a wide range of sites across Central Europe. For example, it can be used on sites with dry or moist, acidic or calcareous soils in grassland or forest environments. We have also improved the implementation of the model by introducing version control and moving species and site-specific variables to data input files, so that species sets can be easily swapped for application in new study sites. We demonstrate the use and behavior of the model in two simulation experiments exploring interactions mediated by Ellenberg's EIVs, using input files to apply the model to different landscapes. We also provide detailed guidance on species selection and calibration, and discuss model limitations.•LandS is an improved version of the GraS Model for simulating vegetation development at the local scale.•It includes Ellenberg-like indicator values for environmental variables for inverse prediction of species occurrence and composition.•The model is now flexible enough to be used for study sites throughout Central Europe, using data input files for species initialization.

Pronounced turnover of vascular plant species in Central European arable fields over 90 years

We studied changes in vascular plant species occurring in Central European (Germany, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Switzerland, Liechtenstein, Austria, Hungary, Northern Italy, Slovenia and Croatia) arable fields and their edges from 1930 to 2019. To correct for bias in the data, we used occupancy modeling to analyze changes in the occupancy, i.e., distribution ranges sizes, of the 359 most common species in the AgriWeedClim database. We used ecological indicator values, native versus alien (archaeophyte, neophyte) status, and species affinity to arable habitats to assess changes in the occupancy of species with different environmental preferences and biogeographic origins. We found only a small decline in overall species occupancy over time, with a median occupancy change of −0.1 %, possibly due to the exclusion of rare species from modeling. Species turnover was more pronounced, with 72 species decreasing to less than half of their initial occupancy and 77 species more than doubling their initial occupancy. Species with environmental preferences for nutrient-rich sites with neutral pH increased in occupancy whereas species typical for arable fields decreased. No response to climate change (i.e., increased occupancy of thermophilous or drought-tolerant species) was detected. Archaeophytes and native species decreased whereas neophytes increased in occupancy. Taken together, results suggest that the biodiversity of arable fields is changing largely in response to anthropogenic habitat changes.

Grassland‐use intensity maps for Switzerland based on satellite time series: Challenges and opportunities for ecological applications

AbstractLand‐use intensification in grassland ecosystems (i.e. increased mowing frequency, intensified grazing) has a strong negative effect on biodiversity and ecosystem services. However, accurate information on grassland‐use intensity is difficult to acquire and restricted to the local or regional level. Recent studies have shown that mowing events can be mapped for large areas using satellite image time series. The transferability of such approaches, especially to mountain areas, has been little explored, however, and the relevance for ecological applications in biodiversity and conservation has hardly been investigated. Here, we used a rule‐based algorithm to produce annual maps for 2018–2021 of grassland‐management events, that is, mowing and/or grazing, for Switzerland using Sentinel‐2 and Landsat 8 satellite data. We assessed the detection of management events based on independent reference data, which we acquired from daily time series of publicly available webcams that are widely distributed across Switzerland. We further examined the relationships between the generated grassland‐use intensity measures and plant species richness and ecological indicator values derived from a nationwide field survey. The webcam‐based verification for 2020 and 2021 revealed that most detected management events were actual mowing/grazing events (≥78%), but that a substantial number of events were not detected (up to 57%), particularly grazing events at higher elevations. We found lower plant species richness and higher mean ecological indicator values for nutrients and mowing tolerance with more frequent management events and those starting earlier in the year. A large proportion of the variance was explained by our use‐intensity measures. Our findings therefore highlight that remotely assessed management events can characterise land‐use intensity at fine spatial and temporal resolutions across broad scales and can explain plant biodiversity patterns in grasslands.

Resurvey studies of terricolous bryophytes and lichens indicate a widespread nutrient enrichment in German forests

AbstractQuestionsVegetation resurveys, both single studies and meta‐analyses, have predominantly been based on vascular plant data while bryophytes and lichens have largely been neglected. Our study aims to fill this gap and addresses the following research questions: has the overall species richness of terricolous bryophytes and lichens in forests changed over time? Which are the winners and losers among single species and ecological species groups? Do the results give a signal of the impact of nutrient enrichment, of changes in the light regime and of climate change?LocationDeciduous and coniferous forests in Germany.MethodsWe compiled 35 single resurvey data sets, including 1096 plots in total (each sampled twice). The time interval between initial surveys and resurveys ranged from 10 to 65 years. The differences between old and new plots were analysed with respect to the frequency of single species, total species richness, and the absolute and relative numbers of taxa in the species groups. Trend scores of species were related to ecological indicator values to identify the main environmental drivers behind the observed changes.ResultsTotal species richness did not systematically change, while pleurocarpous mosses had increased at the expense of acrocarpous mosses and, in coniferous forests, of lichens. Weak changes were generally observed in deciduous forests on base‐rich soils. In coniferous forests and in deciduous forests on acid soils, species with high nitrogen demand and high shade tolerance had increased, whereas those being typical for more infertile and open forest sites had decreased. There were trends towards a larger share of taxa with a more oceanic distribution.ConclusionsThe changes in the vegetation of terricolous bryophytes and lichens in the studied forests indicate nutrient enrichment and increasingly shady conditions in forests on acid soils, likely caused by nitrogen deposition and shrub layer closure.

Changes of vegetation in coniferous monocultures in the context of conversion to mixed forests in 30 years – Implications for biodiversity restoration

The understorey vegetation of temperate forests harbours a major proportion of terrestrial biodiversity and fulfills an important role in ecosystem functioning. Over the past decades, temperate forest understoreys were found to change in species diversity and composition due to several anthropogenic and natural drivers. Currently, the conversion and restoration of even-aged coniferous monocultures into more diverse and mixed broad-leaved forests are major objectives of sustainable forest management in Central Europe. This forest conversion alters understorey communities and abiotic site conditions but the underlying patterns and processes are not yet fully understood. Therefore, we investigated changes in the Bavarian Spessart mountains in southwest Germany, where we re-sampled 108 semi-permanent plots from four different coniferous stand types (i.e., Norway spruce, Scots pine, Douglas fir, European larch) about 30 years after the initial assessment. On these plots, we recorded understorey vegetation and forest structure, and derived abiotic site conditions based on ecological indicator values of understorey vegetation, followed by multivariate analysis. We found changes in plant communities that point towards a decrease of soil acidity and a “thermophilization” of forest understoreys. Understorey species richness remained constant, while understorey's Shannon and Simpson diversity increased. The observed changes in forest structure explained the temporal shifts in understorey species composition. The understorey species composition did not experience a significant floristic homogenization since the 1990s. However, plant communities exhibited a reduction in species characteristic of coniferous forests and a simultaneous increase in species associated with broad-leaved forests. The increase of specialist species (closed forests and open sites) may have compensated for the detected decrease in generalist species. We conclude that the forest conversion towards mixed broad-leaved forest in the Spessart mountains of the past decades might have masked homogenization trends that are increasingly reported from Central European forest understoreys.

Aggregation of Italian Lichen Data in ITALIC 7.0.

The creation of a coordinated publishing and aggregation system of biodiversity data is a challenging task, which calls for the adoption of open data standards. ITALIC, the information system on Italian lichens, originated from the conversion of the first Italian checklist into a database. While the first version was "frozen", the present version is continuously updated and provides access to several other data sources and services, such as ecological indicator values, ecological notes and information, traits, images, digital identification keys, etc. The identification keys especially are an ongoing work that will lead to a complete national flora by 2026. Last year, new services were added, one for aligning lists of names with the national checklist, the other for aggregating occurrence data deriving from the digitization of 13 Italian herbaria, forming a total of ca. 88,000 records, which are distributed under a CC BY license and can be exported as CSV files in the Darwin Core format. An aggregator for lichen data will encourage the national community of lichenologists to produce and aggregate further data sets, and it will stimulate data reuse according to the paradigms of open science.

Climate change impacts on Mediterranean vegetation are amplified at low altitudes

AbstractAimIn the face of ongoing climate warming, we wanted to quantify impacts on vegetation at one of the major climatic and biogeographical boundaries of Europe, the limit between the Mediterranean and Eurosiberian biogeographical regions. We analyse temperature and moisture requirements of plants along altitudinal gradients at regional scale in the period 1980–2020 and we explore if changes coincide with observed changes in the same regions in terms of measured climatic data.LocationSouthern France.Time period1980–2020.TaxaVascular plants.MethodsWe calculated shifts in plants’ temperature and moisture requirements for a large floristic database from south‐eastern France (SIMETHIS) during the period 1980–2020 along altitudinal gradients by using ecological indicator values (EIV). Additionally, we analysed standardized weather station data from the same area and period, to investigate whether floristic changes are synchronized with climate changes.ResultsVegetation data suggest a linear increase in temperature requirements of plant communities from 1980 to 2020 with a greater change at low altitudes. Upward shifts in temperature requirements coincided with observed climate change although warming did not show a general trend towards greater increases at low altitudes. Data on vegetation and climate suggest an upward shift of respectively 150 and 300 m for the boundary between Mediterranean and temperate belts. Moisture requirements of vegetation indicate an increase of the frequency of dry adapted species at low altitudes but an increase towards higher moisture requirements at high altitudes. Comparing vegetation responses with climate data suggests that responses are faster at low altitudes.Main conclusionsOur analyses show that strong general changes in vegetation are underway and highlight faster responses of vegetation to warming in low altitudes compared to high altitudes and demonstrate the need for reliable data on vegetation and climate changes, especially on water balance.

Methodological aspects of synphytoindication analysis of topological differentiation of biotopes

The advantages and disadvantages of some most common methods of quantitative analysis used in processing of synphytoindication data were analyzed. These methods enabled reflection of important ecological characteristics of plant communities and assessment of the nature of their topological and regional differentiation characterizing α-, β-, γ-diversity. We also examined current debatable issues regarding the use of scales of ecological indicator values and methods of their correct comparison based on bringing to a single "denominator". The visual aspects of the gradient analysis used in assessment of topological differentiation of habitats based on the establishment of various types (vector, combinative and complex) of ecological and coenotic profiles are considered. We focused our attention on the application of optimal models of ordination methods (detrended correspondence analysis – DCA, non-metric multidimensional scaling – NMDS). The use of cluster analysis reflected in various methods of dendrogram constructing was evaluated. The analysis of the above methods allows us to evaluate the efficiency of their use in various aspects of synphytoindication techniques. This allows us to use such data for forecasting and modeling biocoenoses changes and development, for assessment and classification of biotopes, landscape structure (ecomer), zoning (ecochor), as well as for evaluation of the resistance of vegetation to the influence of external factors. The methods and approaches of mathematics and cybernetics are expected to be more widely used in geobotany in the future, since many pressing ecological issues related to non-linear development, emergent changes in the ecosystems properties and search for critical thresholds cannot be solved in a traditional way.

Magnitude and drivers of plant diversity loss differ between spatial scales in Scania, Sweden 1957–2021

AbstractQuestionsChanged land use, nitrogen deposition, climate change, and the spread of non‐native species have repeatedly been reported as the main drivers of recent floristic changes in northern Europe. However, the relevance of the geographical scale at which floristic changes are observed is less well understood and it has only rarely been possible to quantify biodiversity loss. Therefore, we assessed changes in species richness, species composition and mean ecological indicator values (EIVs) at three nested geographic scales during two different time periods, each ca 30 years, since the mid‐1900s.LocationTwo parishes in central Scania, southernmost Sweden.MethodsWe analyzed species presence/absence data from three inventories at ca 30‐year intervals over 1957–2021 and three geographic scales (157 m2, ca 7 km2 and ca 45 km2) to document temporal trends and differences between geographic scales in terms of species richness, species composition and mean EIVs.ResultsWe found shifts in species composition across all geographical scales. However, the magnitude of biodiversity loss and the main drivers of these changes were scale‐dependent. At the smallest spatial scale, we saw a dramatic loss of plant biodiversity with local species richness in 2021 being only 48% of that of 1960. In contrast, at the larger geographic scales no significant changes in species richness were observed because species losses were compensated for by gains of predominantly non‐native species, which made up at least 78% of the new species richness. At the smallest spatial scale, changed land use (ceased grazing/mowing and intensified forestry) appeared as the main driver, while an increasing proportion of non‐native species, as well as climatic changes and increasing nitrogen loads appeared relatively more important at larger geographic scales.ConclusionOur results highlight the precarious situation for biodiversity in the region and at the same time the fundamental importance of geographic scale in studies of biodiversity change. Both the magnitude and drivers of changes may differ depending on the geographic scale and must be considered also when previously published studies are interpreted.

Distribution of the Riparian Salix Communities in and around Romanian Carpathians

Salix riparian communities are particularly diverse and of extraordinary ecological importance. This study will analyze the diversity of Salix riparian communities (S. alba, S. fragilis, S. purpurea and S. triandra), their distribution, ecological importance, and conservation. There were 444 records for S. alba, 417 for S. fragilis, 457 for S. purpurea, and 375 for S. triandra, both from the literature and herbaria. Thus, it can be seen that the distribution of the four Salix species studied is very widespread throughout the territory where this study was carried out. According to EIVE (Ecological Indicator Values of Europe) but also to the national list values for niche positions and niche widths, they were noted to be very close for all ecological indicators: M (soil moisture), L (light), and T (temperature), but not for the ecological indicator of soil nitrogen (N) availability or R (soil reaction). Obviously, those riparian Salix communities are important for the functions they indicate, primarily for climate change mitigation, but also for regulating water flow, improving water quality, and providing habitats for wildlife. Conservation and management of these important ecosystems are necessary to maintain their biodiversity, and ecological services and strategies that can be used to protect and manage these communities are outlined.