Ecological Coherence Research Articles

An ecological coherence assessment of the Wider Caribbean Region marine protected area network

Marine protected areas (MPA) are area-based management tools that serve as the cornerstone for marine conservation and sustainable use. There has been a recent shift from establishing MPAs on an individual basis to establishing networks of connected MPAs to better reflect the transient dynamics of marine species and to ensure they are acting synergistically to deliver their intended outcomes in a coherent manner. This study employs innovative geospatial analysis to assess the ecological coherence of the MPA network comprising 846 sites within the Wider Caribbean Region, a global hotspot of marine biodiversity. Evaluating four main criteria widely used in policy—representativity, replicability, connectivity, and adequacy—through 14 tests, our findings indicate that the current MPA network is unlikely to have achieved ecological coherence across all criteria. To improve ecological coherence, regional management could focus on expanding coverage of ecologically important areas, encompassing a broader range of biogeographic zones, and protecting the full spectrum of marine habitats in the region. Efforts should also be directed towards establishing larger MPAs and increasing the number of MPAs with no-take zones, while ensuring the protection of indigenous and local communities' rights to sustainable marine resource use.

Species Delimitation in a Polyploid Group of Iberian Jasione (Campanulaceae) Unveils Coherence between Cryptic Speciation and Biogeographical Regionalization.

Groups with morphological stasis are an interesting framework to address putative cryptic species that may be hidden behind traditional taxonomic treatments, particularly when distribution ranges suggest disjunct and environmentally heterogeneous biogeographic patterns. New hypotheses of delimitation of evolutionary independent units can lead to the identification of different biogeographic processes, laying the foundation to investigate their historical and ecological significance. Jasione is a plant genus with a distribution centered in the Mediterranean basin, characterized by significant morphological stasis. Within the western Mediterranean J. gr. crispa species complex, J. sessiliflora s.l. and allied taxa form a distinct group, occupying environmentally diverse regions. At least two ploidy levels, diploid and tetraploid, are known to occur in the group. The internal variability is assessed with phylogenetic tools, viz. GMYC and ASAP, for species delimitation. The results are compared with other lines of evidence, including morphology and cytology. The fitting of distribution patterns of the inferred entities to chorological subprovinces is also used as a biogeographical and environmental framework to test the species hypothesis. Despite the scarcity of diagnostic morphological characters in the group, phylogenetic delimitation supports the description of at least one cryptic species, a narrow endemic in the NE Iberian Peninsula. Moreover, the results support the segregation of a thermophilic group of populations in eastern Iberia from J. sessiliflora. Ploidy variation from a wide geographical survey supports the systematic rearrangement suggested by species delimitation. Taxonomic reorganization in J. sessiliflora s.l. would allow ecological interpretations of distribution patterns in great accordance with biogeographical regionalization at the subprovince level, supporting geobotanical boundaries as a framework to interpret species ecological coherence of cryptic lineages. These results suggest that species differentiation, together with geographic isolation and polyploidization, is associated with adaptation to different environments, shifting from more to less thermophilic conditions. Thus, the recognition of concealed evolutionary entities is essential to correctly interpret biogeographical patterns in regions with a complex geologic and evolutionary history, such as the Mediterranean basin, and biogeographical units emerge as biologically sound frameworks to test the species hypothesis.

Assessing the influence of behavioural parameterisation on the dispersal of larvae in marine systems

Predicting dispersal and quantifying ecological connectivity are increasingly referenced as fundamental to understanding how biodiversity is structured across space and time. Dispersal models can provide insight, but their predictions are influenced by our capacity to simulate the biology and physics known to influence dispersal. In a marine context, vertical swimming behaviour is considered important in influencing the spatial organisation of species across seascapes, but the mechanisms underpinning these movements remain unresolved, making it unclear how best to incorporate behaviour within models. Here, using a 3-D hydrodynamic model coupled with a Lagrangian particle tracker, we show how different modelled larval behaviours, alongside spatial and temporal hydrodynamic changes, influence larval dispersal predictions. Additionally, we compare the application of a novel approach of reverse-engineered larval swimming behaviour against two commonly modelled behaviours: passive dispersal and tidal vertical migration (TVM). We used statistical models (LME and GAM) to test the effects of change in tidal state conditions, season, and planktonic larval duration in conjunction with behavioural parameters on dispersal. For shorter PLDs (i.e., 1 day), we find that passive models match ‘behaving’ model outputs, but for longer PLDs, excluding behaviour leads to overestimates of dispersal; an effect that increases with time. Our results highlight the sensitivity of biophysical models to behavioural inputs, specifically how vertical migration behaviour can significantly reduce dispersal distance - especially for species with longer planktonic durations. This study demonstrates the disproportionate effects that even a single behaviour - vertical swimming - can have on model predictions, our understanding of ecosystem functioning, and ultimately, the ecological coherence of marine systems.

Patterns of Urban Green Space Use Applying Social Media Data: A Systematic Literature Review

Scientific interest in the potential of urban green spaces, particularly urban parks, to improve health and well-being is increasing. Traditional research methods such as observations and surveys have recently been complemented by the use of social media data to understand park visitation patterns. We aimed to provide a systematic overview of how social media data have been applied to identify patterns of urban park use, as well as the advantages and limitations of using social media data in the context of urban park studies. We used the PRISMA method to conduct a systematic literature analysis. Our main findings show that the 22 eligible papers reviewed mainly used social media data to analyse urban park visitors’ needs and demands, and to identify essential park attributes, popular activities, and the spatial, social, and ecological coherence between visitors and parks. The review allowed us to identify the advantages and limitations of using social media data in such research. These advantages include a large database, real-time data, and cost and time savings in data generation of social media data. The identified limitations of using social media data include potentially biased information, a lack of socio-demographic data, and privacy settings on social media platforms. Given the identified advantages and limitations of using social media data in researching urban park visitation patterns, we conclude that the use of social media data as supplementary data constitutes a significant advantage. However, we should critically evaluate the possible risk of bias when using social media data.

The concept of ‘heteromorph ammonoids’

‘Heteromorph ammonoids’ encompass all ammonoid species whose shapes do not conform to a closely coiled planispiral shell. The term is useful as a broad description for such ammonoids. However, as a concept, ‘heteromorph ammonoids’ no longer has any scientific value or explanatory power. Although such ammonoids have traditionally been considered aberrant forms, they represent instead an integral part of the evolutionary history of the Ammonoidea. ‘Heteromorph ammonoids’, as a whole, are a polyphyletic group, consisting of a heterogeneous mixture of taxa without any phylogenetic, morphological or ecological coherence. Their treatment as a single entity risks conflating convergences and phylogenetic affinities. It also vastly oversimplifies the stunning array of morphologies and ecological niches occupied by these animals. Investigation into the uncoiling (and recoiling) of ammonoids is a legitimate and worthwhile enterprise, especially in view of the realization that this phenomenon occurred several times in the history of the Ammonoidea. However, few insights can be gained by treating ‘heteromorph ammonoids’ as a single entity. Studies of such ammonoids should focus on monophyletic groups within a well-constrained phylogenetic and stratigraphical framework to yield meaningful results.

Emerging Patterns of Microbial Functional Traits.

Functional traits are measurable characteristics that affect an organism's fitness under certain environmental conditions. The use of functional traits in microbial ecology holds great promise for improving our ability to develop biogeochemical models and predict ecosystem responses to global changes. Notably, functional traits could be decoupled from taxonomic relatedness, owing to horizontal gene transfer among microorganisms and adaptive evolution. In recent years, our knowledge about microbial functional traits has been substantially enhanced, thereby revealing the multitude of ecological processes in driving community assembly and dynamics. Here, I summarize the emerging patterns of how microbial functional traits respond to changing environments, which considerably differ from better-studied microbial taxonomy. I use niche and neutral theories to explain microbial functional traits. Finally, I highlight future challenges to analyze, elucidate, and utilize functional traits in microbial ecology.

Microbial linkages to soil biogeochemical processes in a poorly drained agricultural ecosystem

Soil microorganisms mediate biogeochemical processes, but how microbial community composition influences these processes remains contested. We combined monthly sequencing of soil 16S rRNA genes and intensive measurements of nitrogen (N), carbon (C), and iron (Fe) cycling along a topographic gradient in a poorly drained intensive agricultural ecosystem (corn–soybean rotation) in the midwestern United States. Observed microbial composition changed little over time within and among years despite large differences in weather and crop type. Yet, microbial composition varied greatly with topographic location and correlated strongly with moisture, soil organic carbon (SOC), and especially pH. Microbial families, genera, and/or amplicon sequence variants often correlated significantly with measured biogeochemical processes or pools, yet different taxa within the same phylogenetic groups often responded in opposite ways, indicating a lack of ecological coherence among close relatives. Dominant phyla were generally similar across the topographic gradient but specific members showed consistent tradeoffs among locations. Ammonia oxidizing archaea and bacteria sequences varied oppositely with pH across the gradient, but their combined relative abundances remained similar, as did potential nitrification rates. Nitrospira sequences correlated positively with nitrous oxide (N2O) fluxes, suggesting a direct or indirect contribution of nitrification (or possibly comammox) to N2O production. We also found significant linkages between taxonomic groups and redox-sensitive Fe pools, indicating a role for redox variation in structuring microbial communities. Several globally dominant bacteria identified previously correlated significantly with measured biogeochemical variables, providing insights into their possible functional roles. Overall, microbial composition provided a coarse measure of several key biogeochemical functions and implicated taxa that possibly mediate these processes in a widespread agroecosystem of North America.

The pH-based ecological coherence of active canonical methanotrophs in paddy soils

Abstract. Soil pH is considered one of the main determinants of the assembly of globally distributed microorganisms that catalyze the biogeochemical cycles of carbon (C) and nitrogen (N). However, direct evidence for niche specialization of microorganisms in association with soil pH is still lacking. Using methane-oxidizing bacteria (methanotrophs) as a model system of C cycling, we show that pH is potentially the key driving force selecting for canonical γ (type I) and α (type II) methanotrophs in rice paddy soils. DNA-based stable isotope probing (DNA-SIP) was combined with high-throughput sequencing to reveal the taxonomic identities of active methanotrophs in physiochemically contrasting soils from six different paddy fields across China. Following microcosm incubation amended with 13CH4, methane was primarily consumed by Methylocystis-affiliated type II methanotrophs in soils with a relatively low pH (5.44–6.10), whereas Methylobacter- or Methylosarcina-affiliated type I methanotrophs dominated methane consumption in soils with a high pH (7.02–8.02). Consumption of 13CH4 contributed 0.203 % to 1.25 % of soil organic C, but no significant difference was observed between high-pH and low-pH soils. The fertilization of ammonium nitrate resulted in no significant changes in the compositions of 13C-labeled methanotrophs in the soils, although significant inhibition of methane oxidation activity was consistently observed in low-pH soils. Mantel analysis further validated that soil pH, rather than other parameters tested, had significant correlation to the variation in active methanotrophic compositions across different rice paddy soils. These results suggest that soil pH might have played a pivotal role in mediating the niche differentiation of ecologically important aerobic methanotrophs in terrestrial ecosystems and imply the importance of such niche specialization in regulating methane emissions in paddy fields following increasingly intensified input of anthropogenic N fertilizers.

Ecological coherence of Marine Protected Areas: New tools applied to the Baltic Sea network

AbstractSpatial connectivity is an essential process to consider in the design and assessment of Marine Protected Areas (MPAs). To help maintain and restore marine populations and communities MPAs should form ecologically coherent networks. How to estimate and implement connectivity in MPA design remains a challenge.Here a new theoretical framework is presented based on biophysical modelling of organism dispersal, combined with a suite of tools to assess different aspects of connectivity that can be integrated in MPA design. As a demonstration, these tools are applied to an MPA network in the Baltic Sea (HELCOM MPA).The tools are based on the connectivity matrix, which summarizes dispersal probabilities, averaged over many years, between all considered areas in the geographic target area. The biophysical model used to estimate connectivity included important biological traits that affect dispersal patterns where different trait combinations and habitat preferences will produce specific connectivity matrices representing different species.Modelled connectivity matrices were used to assess local retention within individual MPAs, which offers indications about the adequacy of size when MPAs are considered in isolation. The connectivity matrix also provides information about source areas to individual MPAs, e.g. sources of larvae or pressures such as contaminants. How well several MPAs act as a network was assessed within a framework of eigenvalue perturbation theory (EPT). With EPT, the optimal MPA network with respect to connectivity can be identified. In addition, EPT can suggest optimal extensions of existing MPA networks to enhance connectivity. Finally, dispersal barriers can be identified based on the connectivity matrix, which may suggest boundaries for management units.The assessment of connectivity for the HELCOM MPA are discussed in terms of possible improvements, but the tools presented here could be applied to any region.

Evaluating seabed habitat representativeness across a diverse set of marine protected areas on the Mid-Atlantic Ridge

Marine ecosystem-based management requires good spatial information on the distribution of marine species and habitats. Often, such information is limited to a few sampled locations, but modelling techniques can be applied to produce predictive distribution maps. A harmonized broad-scale seabed habitat map was recently produced for the archipelagos of Macaronesia under the EMODnet Seabed Habitats Programme. We use this new information to produce an extent-based evaluation of the representativeness and level of protection conferred by the current set of marine protected areas (MPAs) in the Azores to the variety of benthic marine habitats found in this oceanic region. A more objective assessment of the protection effectively provided to the habitats is obtained by applying a scoring system to the MPAs based on the number of allowed extractive and non-extractive human activities and their potential impact on marine biodiversity and habitats. Results show that Azorean habitats within the MPAs are nearly entirely classified as highly protected. In total, 26 habitats (7 of which are endangered and 2 are rare) have at least 10% of their extent in the Azores EEZ protected by MPAs, but another 29 fail to meet this target (4 on-shelf habitats and 25 deep-sea habitats), highlighting the need to extend current protection of bathyal and abyssal habitats and applying adequate ecological coherence criteria. This approach sets a standard that can be used wherever similar information is available, be it in other European regions or beyond.

Bioinvasions and the idea of the Mediterranean

(2019). Bioinvasions and the idea of the Mediterranean. Geography: Vol. 104, No. 2, pp. 106-108.

The human gut pan-microbiome presents a compositional core formed by discrete phylogenetic units

The complex community of microbes living in the human gut plays an important role in host wellbeing. However, defining a ‘healthy’ gut microbiome in terms of composition has remained an elusive task, despite its anticipated medical and scientific importance. In this regard, a central question has been if there is a ‘core’ microbiome consisting of bacterial groups common to all healthy humans. Recent studies have been able to define a compositional core in human gut microbiome datasets in terms of taxonomic assignments. However, the description of the core microbiome in terms of taxonomic assignments may not be adequate when considering subsequent analyses and applications. Through the implementation of a dynamic clustering approach in the meta-analyisis of comprehensive 16S rRNA marker gene datasets, this study found that the human gut pan-microbiome presents a preeminent compositional core comprised of discrete units of varying phylogenetic depth present in all individuals studied. Since both microbial traits and ecological coherence show signs of phylogenetic conservation, this outcome provides a new conceptual framework in the study of the ecosystem, as well as important practical considerations which should be taken into account in future research.

Bridging the divide: Social–ecological coherence in Marine Protected Area network design

Abstract Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) and networks of MPAs are being implemented globally as a spatial management tool for achieving conservation objectives. There has been considerable progress in reaching the prescribed 10% protected area target for 2020, outlined in the Convention on Biological Diversity Aichi Target 11 and the United Nations Sustainable Development Goal 14. The application of MPA network design principles (e.g. Representative, ecological connectivity), which underpin ecological coherence, is still lacking or insufficient in many regions. Poor ecological coherence hinders the ecological performance of MPA networks, leading to dysfunction in the flow of ecosystem services and reduced ecosystem benefits, with potentially negative consequences for human well‐being. This paper presents four pivotal focus points for future progress that can bridge the gap between ecological and social systems. The aim is to shift the discourse of ‘ecological coherence’ further into the social sphere, and hence support the alignment of the process of designating ecologically coherent MPA networks with the ‘triple bottom line’ of economic development, environmental sustainability, and social inclusion, as described in the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), to achieve social–ecological coherence in MPA network design.

Temporal shifts in floristic and avian diversity in Mediterranean pine forest ecosystems under different fire pressure: The island of Zakynthos as a case study

We evaluated how fire impacts the ecological coherence of Aleppo pine forests and their biodiversity over a 40-year period. The study area forms part of an insular ecosystem of Zakynthos Island (Zante) in western Greece, which forms part of the Ionian Islands. Post-fire effects were studied for both plant and bird diversity at 20 sampling plots, using stratified random sampling, during the summer of 2012. The plots were selected based on the frequency of burning since the 1970s. Sites were categorized as: 1) no burning for >40 years, 2) burnt once in the 1970s, 3) burnt twice, first in the 1970s and again in 2000–2010, 4) burnt three times, first in the 1970s, and twice more in 2000–2010, and 5) burnt four times, first in the1970s, twice more in 2000–2010, and again in 2011. A total of 79 plant species and 26 bird species were recorded at the studied sites. One-way ANOVA analysis showed that fire intensity has a significant impact on alpha floristic diversity. Average plant species richness at sites that burned in 2011 was significantly higher than in those that burned in the 1970s. Detected differences in bird species richness were not significant; however, more species were documented in the forested habitats (unburnt for >40 years, and burnt in the 1970s). The highest Jaccard similarity index was observed between the sites that had not burned for more than 40 years and the sites that burned in the 1970s. The lowest floristic similarity to non-burnt sites was observed between the recently burnt sites in 2011 and the sites that burned in the 1970s. The lowest bird similarity was detected between recently burnt sites in 2011 and sites that had not burned for more than 40 years. DCA ordination showed the presence of a clear fire gradient, from intensively burnt open sites to non-burnt forest sites. We suggest that fire is essential to maintain biodiversity in Aleppo pine forests, but only at intermediate frequency.

Towards ‘ecological coherence’: Assessing larval dispersal within a network of existing Marine Protected Areas

The Convention on Biological Diversity mandates the establishment of Marine Protected Area (MPA) networks worldwide, with recommendations stating the importance of ‘ecological coherence,’ a responsibility to support and perpetuate the existing ecosystem, implying the need to sustain population connectivity. While recommendations exist for integrating connectivity data into MPA planning, little advice exists on how to assess the connectivity of existing networks. This study makes use of recently observed larval characteristics and freely available models to demonstrate how such an assessment could be undertaken. The cold water coral (CWC) Lophelia pertusa (Linnaeus, 1758) is used as a model species, as much of the NE Atlantic MPA network has been designated for CWC reef protection, but the ecological coherence of the network has yet to be assessed. Simulations are run for different behavioural null models allowing a comparison of ‘passive’ (current driven) and ‘active’ (currents + vertical migration) dispersal, while an average prediction is used for MPA assessment. This model suggests that the network may support widespread larval exchange and has good local retention rates but still has room for improvement. The best performing MPAs were large and central to the network facilitating transport across local dispersal barriers. On average, passive and active dispersal simulations gave statistically similar results, providing encouragement to future local dispersal assessments where active characteristics are unknown.

Diversity of aromatic hydroxylating dioxygenase genes in mangrove microbiome and their biogeographic patterns across global sites.

Aromatic hydrocarbons (AH), such as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, are compounds largely found in nature. Aromatic‐ring‐hydroxylating dioxygenases (ARHD) are proteins involved in AH degradation pathways. We used ARHD functional genes from an oil‐impacted mangrove area and compared their diversity with other sites around the world to understand the ARHD biogeographic distribution patterns. For this, a comprehensive database was established with 166 operational protein families (OPFs) from 1,758 gene sequences obtained from 15 different sites worldwide, of which twelve are already published studies and three are unpublished. Based on a deduced ARHD peptide sequences consensus phylogeny, we examined trends and divergences in the sequence phylogenetic clustering from the different sites. The taxonomic affiliation of the OPF revealed that Pseudomonas, Streptomyces, Variovorax, Bordetella and Rhodococcus were the five most abundant genera, considering all sites. The functional diversity analysis showed the enzymatic prevalence of benzene 1,2‐dioxygenase, 3‐phenylpropionate dioxygenase and naphthalene 1,2‐dioxygenase, in addition to 10.98% of undefined category ARHDs. The ARHD gene correlation analysis among different sites was essentially important to gain insights on spatial distribution patterns, genetic congruence and ecological coherence of the bacterial groups found. This work revealed the genetic potential from the mangrove sediment for AH biodegradation and a considerable evolutionary proximity among the dioxygenase OPFs found in Antarctica and South America sites, in addition to high level of endemism in each continental region.

Exploring the Ecological Coherence between the Spatial and Temporal Patterns of Bacterioplankton in Boreal Lakes.

One of the major contemporary challenges in microbial ecology has been to discriminate the reactive core from the random, unreactive components of bacterial communities. In previous work we used the spatial abundance distributions of bacterioplankton across boreal lakes of Québec to group taxa into four distinct categories that reflect either hydrology-mediated dispersal along the aquatic network or environmental selection mechanisms within lakes. Here, we test whether this categorization derived from the spatial distribution of taxa is maintained over time, by analyzing the temporal dynamics of the operational taxonomic units (OTUs) within those spatially derived categories along an annual cycle in the oligotrophic lake Croche (Québec, Canada), and assessing the coherence in the patterns of abundance, occurrence, and environmental range of these OTUs over space and time. We report that the temporal dynamics of most taxa within a single lake are largely coherent with those derived from their spatial distribution over large spatial scales, suggesting that these properties must be intrinsic of particular taxa. We also identified a set of rare taxa cataloged as having a random occupancy based on their spatial distribution, but which showed clear seasonality and abundance peaks along the year, yet these comprised a very small fraction of the total rare OTUs. We conclude that the presence of most rare bacterioplankton taxa in boreal lakes is random, since both their temporal and spatial dynamics suggest links to passive downstream transport and persistence in freshwater networks, rather than environmental selection.

Assessing the ecological coherence of a marine protected area network in the Celtic Seas

AbstractMarine protected areas (MPAs) are a management tool used to respond to human‐derived threats in marine ecosystems. Historically, MPAs have been established on an individual ad hoc basis, rather than through a systematic, planned process. However, high levels of functional and spatial connectivity within marine ecosystems have led to the suggestion that networks of MPAs provide greater ecological benefits than individual MPAs. Consequently, international policy has developed to consider broader spatial requirements for marine conservation, resulting in a number of international and regional agreements that require the establishment of ecologically coherent MPA networks. Existing MPAs are now being considered, retrospectively, alongside new designations, as networks of MPAs across regions, both nationally and internationally. Under the Marine Strategy Framework Directive (MSFD), France, the Republic of Ireland, and the UK (including Northern Ireland and the Isle of Man) are required to work together to ensure coordinated development of marine strategies for the Celtic Seas subregion. Accordingly, MPAs have been identified as crucial components of the programme of measures to achieve Good Environmental Status (GES) under the MSFD. Here, we provide the first ecological coherence assessment of an MPA network spanning an MSFD subregion. A network of 533 MPAs, or parts thereof, across the Celtic Seas subregion was assessed using five criteria and two methodologies, with a focus on broadscale habitats. While the Celtic Seas MPA network as a whole is not ecologically coherent (according to accepted thresholds), progress toward a number of global targets has been achieved, for example, protection of 10% of marine and coastal areas under the Convention on Biological Diversity. Further, all MSFD predominant habitat types assessed are adequately represented and replicated within the network. However, a number of gaps were identified, including a lack of MPAs in offshore and deeper areas, and inadequate proportions of predominant habitat types within MPAs. Addressing these gaps to enable the MPA network to fulfill its critical role in the delivery of GES under the MSFD will require both national progress toward designation of adequate and viable MPAs and transboundary agreements and coordination of MPA designation processes at the European level.

Unsustainable Oil: Facts, Counterfacts and Fictions by Jon Gordon

Reviewed by: Unsustainable Oil: Facts, Counterfacts and Fictions by Jon Gordon Nicholas Bradley Jon Gordon, Unsustainable Oil: Facts, Counterfacts and Fictions. Edmonton: U of Alberta P, 2015. 290 pp. Paper, $45; e-book, $36.99. An immense wildfire consumed Fort McMurray, Alberta, in the spring of 2016 and interrupted industrial activity in the Athabasca oil sands. Images of the conflagration suggested apocalypse; the effect on the provincial economy was cataclysmic. The oil sands themselves are utterly distant from Ottawa and Toronto, Montreal and Vancouver, but their importance to Canada was expressed powerfully in the televised scenes of the evacuation of Fort Mac: the disaster was a national crisis, one that exacerbated the perpetual controversy that attends bitumen mining in Alberta. "Bitumen is central to the current narratives of Alberta and Canada," Jon Gordon writes in Unsustainable Oil, an examination of the political, economic, and cultural assumptions that sustain industries of extraction (1). Undoubtedly he is correct. He seeks to demonstrate that the phenomenon of the oil sands is not merely the result of technological capability or economic necessity but instead a consequence of ideology: "The industrialization of the bituminous region of Northern Alberta is a manifestation of a cultural belief in limitless progress and endless expansion" (xxxiv). To analyze the rhetoric of oil—"to contribute a new line of critique to the ongoing resistance to bitumen extraction" (lv)—he surveys an assortment of "bituminous narratives" (xxix): political statements, news reports, industrial and environmentalist propaganda, scientific findings, and literary works by such authors as Warren Cariou, Robert Kroetsch, Marc Prescott, Richard Van Camp, Rudy Wiebe, and Rita Wong. Because "literature can and has re-presented the necessity of ecological coherence and the threats posed to it by industrial capitalism" (2), it provides "one place to look," Gordon proposes, "for alternative narratives that reveal what is left out of [End Page 219] progressive and teleological myths" (3). He also writes affectingly about Laurier Lake, a wild place of "deep personal connection," now threatened (177). Gordon interprets the "nation's petroculture" (45) with the assistance of Bruno Latour and Slavoj Žižek, Jacques Derrida and Michel Foucault. Prominent too are the ideas of Canadian intellectuals who may be less familiar to an international readership than les grands penseurs: he draws on the philosophical writings of George Grant, who "has, arguably, thought through the consequences of a fully realized technological society in the Canadian context more completely than anyone else" (10), and of Jan Zwicky, whose notions of lyric perception are understood to challenge capitalist convictions. Gordon is generous in his estimation of literature's capacity to sway hearts and minds. He contends that "literary texts can help us to see, in a new way, the myth of liberal capitalism that we are living within; they can help us to wake up, to see that even those of us who may think we are benefitting from extraction capitalism are threatened by it" (148). But as his book attests, it is not only literature that exposes the myth: Unsustainable Oil is primarily a work of cultural criticism, not literary inquiry. The public effects of literary works are difficult to discern and measure. I share Gordon's faith—I choose the word deliberately—in the transformative powers of the literary arts, but I am skeptical of an inherent connection between the effects of poems and novels upon the reader, which are above all private and unruly, and the social and political arrangements that license ecological abominations. "Reading poetry, reading literature," he observes, "can help us pause and think, … can interrupt the smooth functioning of a system that claims scientific knowledge in the service of maximizing profit, can wake us from the dream of limitless growth" (142). Would that it were so. But how literature attains these ends—when and under what conditions—it is hard to determine. Yet of course, as Gordon knows, habits of mind shape the world. The argument is stated cogently and with some urgency in another recent volume, Jedediah Purdy's After Nature: A Politics for the Anthropocene (2015): [End Page 220] far from being frivolous make-believe, imagination is intensely practical. What we become conscious of, how we see it, and...

Combining the Conservation of Biodiversity with the Provision of Ecosystem Services in Urban Green Infrastructure Planning: Critical Features Arising from a Case Study in the Metropolitan Area of Rome

A large number of green infrastructure (GI) projects have recently been proposed, planned and implemented in European cities following the adoption of the GI strategy by the EU Commission in 2013. Although this policy tool is closely related to biodiversity conservation targets, some doubts have arisen as regards the ability of current urban GI to provide beneficial effects not only for human societies but also for the ecological systems that host them. The aim of this work is to review the features that should be considered critical when searching for solutions that simultaneously support biodiversity and guarantee the provision of ecosystem services (ES) in urban areas. Starting from a case study in the metropolitan area of Rome, we highlight the role of urban trees and forests as proxies for overall biodiversity and as main ecosystem service providers. We look beyond the individual functional features of plant species and vegetation communities to promote the biogeographic representativity, ecological coherence and landscape connectivity of new or restored GI elements.