Ecological Adaptation Research Articles

Genomic exploration of the endangered oriental stork, Ciconia boyciana, sheds light on migration adaptation and future conservation.

The oriental stork, Ciconia boyciana, is an endangered migratory bird listed on the International Union for Conservation of Nature's Red List. The bird population has experienced a rapid decline in the past decades, with nest locations and stop-over sites largely degraded due to human-bird conflicts. Multipronged conservation efforts are required to secure the future of oriental storks. We propose that a thorough understanding of the genome-wide genetic background of this threatened bird species is critical to make future conservation strategies. In this study, the first chromosome-scale reference genome was presented for the oriental stork with high quality, contiguity, and accuracy. The assembled genome size was 1.24 Gb with a scaffold N50 of 103 Mb, and 1.23 Gb contigs (99.32%) were anchored to 35 chromosomes. Population genomic analysis did not show a genetic structure in the wild population. Genome-wide genetic diversity (π = 0.0012) of the oriental stork was at a moderate to high level among threatened bird species, and the inbreeding risk was also not significant (FROH = 5.56% ± 5.30%). Reconstruction of demographic history indicated a rapid recent population decline likely driven by human activities. Genes that were under positive selection associated with the migratory trait were identified in relation to the long-term potentiation, photoreceptor cell organization, circadian rhythm, muscle development, and energy metabolism, indicating the essential interplay between genetic and ecological adaptation. Our study presents the first chromosome-scale genome assembly of the oriental stork and provides a genomic basis for understanding a genetic background of the oriental stork, the population's extinction risks, and the migratory characteristics, which will facilitate the decision of future conservation plans for this species.

Earliest known funerary rites in Wallacea after the last glacial maximum

The insular region of Wallacea has become a focal point for studying Pleistocene human ecological and cultural adaptations in island environments, however, little is understood about early burial traditions during the Pleistocene. Here we investigate maritime interactions and burial practices at Ratu Mali 2, an elevated coastal cave site on the small island of Kisar in the Lesser Sunda Islands of eastern Indonesia dated to 15,500–3700 cal. BP. This multidisciplinary study demonstrates extreme marine dietary adaptations, engagement with an extensive exchange network across open seas, and early mortuary practices. A flexed male and a female, interred in a single grave with abundant shellfish and obsidian at Ratu Mali 2 by 14.7 ka are the oldest known human burials in Wallacea with established funerary rites. These findings highlight the impressive flexibility of our species in marginal environments and provide insight into the earliest known ritualised treatment of the dead in Wallacea.

Latitudinal patterns and their climate drivers of the δ 13C, δ 15N, δ 34S isotope signatures of Spartina alterniflora across plant life-death status: a global analysis.

Isotopic signatures offer new methods, approaches, and perspectives for exploring the ecological adaptability and functions of plants. We examined pattern differences in the isotopic signatures (δ 13C, δ 15N, δ 34S) of Spartina alterniflora across varying plant life-death status along geographic clines. We extracted 539 sets of isotopic data from 57 publications covering 267 sites across a latitude range of over 23.8° along coastal wetlands. Responses of isotopic signatures to climate drivers (MAT and MAP) and the internal relationships between isotopic signatures were also detected. Results showed that the δ 13C, δ 15N, and δ 34S of S. alterniflora were -13.52 ± 0.83‰, 6.16 ± 0.14‰, and 4.01 ± 6.96‰, with a range of -17.44‰ to -11.00‰, -2.40‰ to 15.30‰, and -9.60‰ to 15.80‰, respectively. The latitudinal patterns of δ 13C, δ 15N, and δ 34S in S. alterniflora were shaped as a convex curve, a concave curve, and an increasing straight line, respectively. A decreasing straight line for δ 13C within the ranges of MAT was identified under plant life status. Plant life-death status shaped two nearly parallel decreasing straight lines for δ 34S in response to MAT, resulting in a concave curve of δ 34S for live S. alterniflora in response to MAP. The δ 15N of S. alterniflora significantly decreased with increasing δ 13C of S. alterniflora, except for plant death status. The δ 13C, δ 15N, and δ 34S of S. alterniflora are consistent with plant height, stem diameter, leaf traits, etc, showing general latitudinal patterns closely related to MAT. Plant life-death status altered the δ 15N (live: 6.55± 2.23‰; dead: -2.76 ± 2.72‰), latitudinal patterns of S. alterniflora and their responses to MAT, demonstrating strong ecological plasticity and adaptability across the geographic clines. The findings help in understanding the responses of latitudinal patterns of the δ 13C, δ 15N, and δ 34S isotope signatures of S. alterniflora in response plant life-death status, and provide evidence of robust ecological plasticity and adaptability across geographic clines.

Analysis of the application effect of ecological adaptability concept in rural landscape design based on TACSI-IPA evaluation

Abstract In this research, we apply the innovative TACSI-IPA system to study how ecological adaptability can transform rural landscape design, focusing on elevating design excellence and customer contentment. We innovatively blend the TACSI model—centered on capturing tourist attraction nuances—with a sophisticated latent variable approach for a deeper dive into customer satisfaction metrics. The introduction of IPA analysis allows us to intricately map out tourists’ satisfaction levels and interests, leading to more targeted evaluation outcomes. Our practical work in Zhangzhou Wuqiao Village has shown remarkable improvements in the appreciation of both its natural and crafted landscapes. Specifically, the plant and water landscapes achieved coordination scores of 2.25 and 4.46, respectively, with the crafted amenity landscape receiving widespread acclaim and an impressive satisfaction average above 4. A comparative lens against traditional villages underscores Wuqiao Village’s standout visual appeal.

Molecular and cellular basis of life cycle transition provides new insights into ecological adaptation in jellyfish

<p>Jellyfish are renowned for their complex life cycles and important ecological and evolutionary position. The unique transition from the sessile polyp to motile medusa stages is a key process determining a switch in jellyfish behaviour and regulating the formation of jellyfish blooms. Here, we presented a comprehensive cell atlas spanning four successive life cycle stages during the polyp-to-medusa transition in the scyphozoan jellyfish <i>Aurelia</i> <i>coerulea</i>. Moreover, we characterised the variation in cell composition and gene expression patterns during the phase transition, especially in the neuromuscular system. We found several previously unreported cell types that potentially underpin the complex swimming behaviour of jellyfish. Furthermore, we discovered the pivotal role of <i>HOX1</i> in modulating the genesis of striated muscles in <i>A</i>. <i>coerulea</i>. Collectively, this study provides valuable insights into the cellular and molecular mechanisms underlying the complex life cycle transition and helps to advance our understanding of ecological adaptation in jellyfish.</p>

Genomic Analysis of Earwigs and Their Ecological Adaptation: From Genome Assembly to Molecular Mechanisms of Environmental Adaptation

Genomic Analysis of Earwigs and Their Ecological Adaptation: From Genome Assembly to Molecular Mechanisms of Environmental Adaptation

Phylogeny and divergence time estimation of Io moths and relatives (Lepidoptera: Saturniidae: Automeris).

The saturniid moth genus Automeris includes 145 described species. Their geographic distribution ranges from the eastern half of North America to as far south as Peru. Automeris moths are cryptically colored, with forewings that resemble dead leaves, and conspicuously colored, elaborate eyespots hidden on their hindwings. Despite their charismatic nature, the evolutionary history and relationships within Automeris and between closely related genera, remain poorly understood. In this study, we present the most comprehensive phylogeny of Automeris to date, including 80 of the 145 described species. We also incorporate two morphologically similar hemileucine genera, Pseudautomeris and Leucanella, as well as a morphologically distinct genus, Molippa. We obtained DNA data from both dry-pinned and ethanol-stored museum specimens and conducted Anchored Hybrid Enrichment (AHE) sequencing to assemble a high-quality dataset for phylogenetic analysis. The resulting phylogeny supports Automeris as a paraphyletic genus, with Leucanella and Pseudautomeris nested within, with the most recent common ancestor dating back to 21 mya. This study lays the foundation for future research on various aspects of Automeris biology, including geographical distribution patterns, potential drivers of speciation, and ecological adaptations such as antipredator defense mechanisms.

Characterization of microbial community assembly in parasitic plant systems and the influence of microorganisms on metabolite accumulation in parasitic plants: case study of Cistanche salsa and Kalidium foliatum.

Cistanche salsa (C.A.Mey.) G. Beck is a perennial holoparasitic herb recognized for its medicinal properties, particularly in kidney-tonifying and laxative treatments. Despite its therapeutic potential, little is known about the endophyte communities inhabiting C. salsa and its host plants, and how these microorganisms may impact the production and accumulation of metabolites in C. salsa. We conducted a dual analysis focusing on metabolomics of wild C. salsa and microbiome characterization of both C. salsa and its host plant, Kalidium foliatum (Pall.) Moq. The metabolomics analysis revealed variations in metabolite composition across different parts of C. salsa. Additionally, the microbiome analysis involved studying endophytic bacteria and fungi, comparing their community structures between parasitic C. salsa and its host plant. Significant variations in metabolite composition were observed through metabolomic profiling, which identified 93 secondary metabolites and 398 primary metabolites across various parts of C. salsa. Emphasis was placed on differences in metabolite composition within the flowers. Microbiome analysis revealed differential community compositions of endophytic bacteria between the parasitic and host plants, whereas differences in endophytic fungi were less pronounced. Certain endophytes, such as Bacteroidota, Proteobacteria, Ascomycota, and Basidiomycota, were associated with the production of specific secondary metabolites in C. salsa, including the plant-specific compound salsaside. Our findings highlight the intricate relationship between C. salsa and its endophytic microbiota, suggesting a potential role of these microorganisms in modulating the biosynthesis of bioactive compounds. The differential preferences of endophytic bacteria and fungi across various microenvironments within the parasitic plant system underscore the complexity of these interactions. Further elucidation of these dynamics could enhance our understanding of C. salsa's medicinal properties and its ecological adaptations as a holoparasitic herb.

Seed dispersal by wintering ducks in a coastal wetland of eastern China

Duck species are important vectors for seed dispersal of many plants, contributing significantly to the regeneration of wetland plant communities. However, research on the temporal changes in diet and the dynamics and differences of seed dispersal among different duck species is still limited. In this study, we analyzed the diversity of duck community and the diversity of seeds in the feces of different duck species from December to February for 2022–23 and 2023–24 in the coastal wetland of Dafeng, eastern Jiangsu Province, China. A total of 13 duck species were recorded in the four habitats, of which Spot-billed Ducks (Anas zonorhyncha) and Mallards (A. platyrhynchos) were the most abundant. The diversity and abundance of ducks vary across different habitats, and tidal flat supports the greatest diversity and abundance of ducks. We collected fecal samples from Spot-billed Ducks, Gadwalls (Mareca strepera), Mallards, and Eurasian Teals (A. crecca) in the tidal flat, from which seeds belonging to 7 families, 13 genera and 15 different plant species were obtained. There were significant differences in seed dispersal among the four duck species, which varied with the season. Gadwalls and Common Teals showed more significant diversity in seed dispersal, with their feces containing a greater variety of plant seeds, which is related to their broader dietary range and ecological adaptability. Furthermore, the seasonal variation in the number of seeds per feces reflected the availability of seeds in the habitat and the response of ducks to environmental changes, while variations in seed intake among different duck species may be associated with inter-annual weather condition changes. The results of this study will provide a new perspective for understanding the mechanisms of bird-mediated seed dispersal in coastal wetland and offer preliminary insights for the seed dispersal by Asian ducks.

Ionic regulatory strategies of crabs: the transition from water to land.

Terrestrial crabs (brachyurans and anomurans) have invaded land following a variety of pathways from marine and/or via freshwater environments. This transition from water to land requires physiological, ecological, and behavioral adaptations to allow the exploitation of these new environmental conditions. Arguably, the management of salt and water balance (e.g., osmoregulation) is integral for their survival and success in an environment where predominantly low-salinity aquatic (e.g., freshwater) water sources are found, sometimes in only minimal amounts. This requires a suite of morphological and biochemical modifications, especially at the branchial chamber of semi-terrestrial and terrestrial crabs to allow reprocessing of urine to maximize ion uptake. Using knowledge gained from electrophysiology, biochemistry, and more recent molecular biology techniques, we present summarized updated models for ion transport for all major taxonomic groups of terrestrial crabs. This is an exciting and fast-moving field of research, and we hope that this review will stimulate further study. Terrestrial crabs retain their crown as the ideal model group for studying the evolutionary pathways that facilitated terrestrial invasion.

Elevated evolutionary rates of biting biomechanics reveal patterns of extraordinary craniodental adaptations in some herbivorous dinosaurs

AbstractAdaptation to specialist ecological niches is a key innovation that has contributed to the evolutionary success of many vertebrate clades, underpinning the acquisition of diverse skull morphologies. Dinosaurs, which dominated Mesozoic terrestrial faunas, acquired herbivory multiple times, and evolution of these herbivorous adaptations is linked to drastic changes in dental and craniomandibular functional morphology, yet whether changes in functionally relevant phenotypic traits occurred more rapidly in herbivorous lineages compared to in carnivorous lineages remains largely untested in a statistical phylogenetic framework. Here, we infer rates of phenotypic evolution using phylogenetic variable‐rate models on relative biting edge (tooth row) lengths of 107 dinosaur taxa to test the hypothesis that the acquisition of herbivory is associated with rapid changes in mandibular biomechanics. We find elevated rates of biomechanical evolution in theropods with foreshortened and beaked skulls (Oviraptorosauria, Limusaurus), as well as in ceratopsians and Diplodocus. The presence and position of a reduced tooth row and increased jaw efficiency unite these high‐rate lineages, indicating selection for greater efficiency in biting biomechanics. Large departures from the isometric scaling of these mandibular characteristics helps explain the differences in evolutionary rates in these clades and those of other herbivorous theropods (Therizinosauria, Ornithomimosauria). Additionally, we hypothesize that extreme ontogenetic changes within species lifetimes may be behind some instances of branch‐wise elevated rates. Thus, we show how exceptional rates of biomechanical evolution can reveal signatures of ecological adaptations within dinosaur lineages as well as within‐species ontogenetic sequences.

Comparative Study of Molluscan Diversity of Kelve and Shirgaon Beach, Palghar, Maharashtra (India)

Coastal ecosystems, encompassing various habitats such as mangroves, coral reefs, beaches, cliffs, lagoons, and estuaries, are vital for the diversity of life. Mollusks, belonging to the phylum Mollusca in the animal kingdom, play a significant role in coastal ecosystems. They serve as important members of the food chain and exhibit remarkable ecological adaptations to various habitats. This research aims to investigate the diversity of mollusks at Kelwa and Shirgaon beaches in Palghar district, Maharashtra. The study will reveal the molluscan diversity at these specific locations, providing insights into their biological classification through systematic arrangement and accompanying shell photographs.

Chemophenetic investigation of epicuticular n-alkanes in Juniperus L. section Juniperus L. from the Balkans

Junipers are one of the most diverse groups of gymnosperms today. They are adapted to arid areas of the world. In this study, we analysed the chemical composition of the leaf n-alkanes of 170 individuals belonging to Juniperus communis subsp. communis, J. communis var. saxatilis, J. deltoides and J. macrocarpa from the Balkans. Localities with at least two sympatric populations were chosen to study the chemical composition in order to limit the influence of environmental factors on the chemical composition. The leaf n-alkanes were extracted from the leaves with n-hexane and analysed using GC-MS. In all of the samples, n-C33 was the dominant alkane, with n-C29, n-C31 and n-C35 comprising over 80% of the n-alkane profile. The percentages of these dominant n-alkanes were taxon-specific, thus indicating their chemotaxonomic significance. In all the multivariate statistical analyses, samples belonging to different taxa were separated from each other. While the n-alkane profile can be used as a chemotaxonomic tool in the differentiation of these four taxa, it did not carry a phylogenetic signal. Instead, it reflected ecological adaptations, showing how different taxa have adapted to different arid environments within the study area.

Chromosome-level genome assembly of the common chiton, Liolophura japonica (Lischke, 1873).

Chitons (Polyplacophora) are marine molluscs that can be found worldwide from cold waters to the tropics, and play important ecological roles in the environment. However, only two chiton genomes have been sequenced to date. The chiton Liolophura japonica (Lischke, 1873) is one of the most abundant polyplacophorans found throughout East Asia. Our PacBio HiFi reads and Omni-C sequencing data resulted in a high-quality near chromosome-level genome assembly of ∼609Mb with a scaffold N50 length of 37.34Mb (96.1% BUSCO). A total of 28,233 genes were predicted, including 28,010 protein-coding ones. The repeat content (27.89%) was similar to that of other Chitonidae species and approximately three times lower than that of the Hanleyidae chiton genome. The genomic resources provided by this work will help to expand our understanding of the evolution of molluscs and the ecological adaptation of chitons.

Adaptation potential of Miscanthus in a solonetz agricultural landscape

The aim of the study was to assess the ecological adaptability of Miscanthus cv. Soranovsky to saline agricultural landscapes and the phytomeliorative effect of the plant on saline soils. Location and time of the study. The field experimental part of the research was carried out in 2018-2020 in the central forest-steppe in the Barabinsky agrolandscape region (Experimental Research Station of the Siberian Federal Center for Agrobiotechnologies). Methods. The common methods of field and vegetation experiments, chemical analysis of soils and plant samples were used in the study. Results. Miscanthus can grow on solonetzic soils, providing a biomass yield of up to 5 t/ha under dry growing season conditions. The removal of nutrients from the soil by the biomass of Miscanthus stems was found to be low (8.2 kg/ha of nitrogen, 1.4 kg/ha of phosphorus and 9.7 kg/ha of potassium per year) due to their annual reutilization into rhizomes. This fact allow to avoid the danger of soil depletion during long-term cultivation of crops. Growing Miscanthus on meadow-chernozem solonetz for an average of three years led to changes in soil properties such as a decrease in pH, and changes in salts chemistry in the soil solution, manifested as a decrease in sodium bicarbonate content. Conclusions. Miscanthus as a crop has wide adaptation capabilities in relation to the marginal lands of the solonetz zone of West Siberia. Miscanthus plantings have a beneficial environment-forming effect on solonetz soils, due to the enrichment of soils with mineral nutrition elements and improvement of soil chemical properties.

De novo genome assembly and population genomics of a shrub tree Barthea barthei (Hance) krass provide insights into the adaptive color variations.

Flower color is a classic example of an ecologically important trait under selection in plants. Understanding the genetic mechanisms underlying shifts in flower color can provide key insights into ecological speciation. In this study, we investigated the genetic basis of flower color divergence in Barthea barthei, a shrub tree species exhibiting natural variation in flower color. We assembled a high-quality genome assembly for B. barthei with a contig N50 of 2.39 Mb and a scaffold N50 of 16.21 Mb. The assembly was annotated with 46,430 protein-coding genes and 1,560 non-coding RNAs. Genome synteny analysis revealed two recent tetraploidization events in B. barthei, estimated to have occurred at approximately 17 and 63 million years ago. These tetraploidization events resulted in massive duplicated gene content, with over 70% of genes retained in collinear blocks. Gene family members of the core regulators of the MBW complex were significantly expanded in B. barthei compared to Arabidopsis, suggesting that these duplications may have provided raw genetic material for the evolution of novel regulatory interactions and the diversification of anthocyanin pigmentation. Transcriptome profiling of B. barthei flowers revealed differential expression of 9 transcription factors related to anthocyanin biosynthesis between the two ecotypes. Six of these differentially expressed transcription factors were identified as high-confidence candidates for adaptive evolution based on positive selection signals. This study provides insights into the genetic basis of flower color divergence and the evolutionary mechanisms underlying ecological adaptation in plants.

Comparative analysis of the microbiomes of strawberry wild species Fragaria nilgerrensis and cultivated variety Akihime using amplicon-based next-generation sequencing.

Fragaria nilgerrensis is a wild strawberry species widely distributed in southwest China and has strong ecological adaptability. Akihime (F. × ananassa Duch. cv. Akihime) is one of the main cultivated strawberry varieties in China and is prone to infection with a variety of diseases. In this study, high-throughput sequencing was used to analyze and compare the soil and root microbiomes of F. nilgerrensis and Akihime. Results indicate that the wild species F. nilgerrensis showed higher microbial diversity in nonrhizosphere soil and rhizosphere soil and possessed a more complex microbial network structure compared with the cultivated variety Akihime. Genera such as Bradyrhizobium and Anaeromyxobacter, which are associated with nitrogen fixation and ammonification, and Conexibacter, which is associated with ecological toxicity resistance, exhibited higher relative abundances in the rhizosphere and nonrhizosphere soil samples of F. nilgerrensis compared with those of Akihime. Meanwhile, the ammonia-oxidizing archaea Candidatus Nitrososphaera and Candidatus Nitrocosmicus showed the opposite tendencies. We also found that the relative abundances of potential pathogenic genera and biocontrol bacteria in the Akihime samples were higher than those in the F. nilgerrensis samples. The relative abundances of Blastococcus, Nocardioides, Solirubrobacter, and Gemmatimonas, which are related to pesticide degradation, and genus Variovorax, which is associated with root growth regulation, were also significantly higher in the Akihime samples than in the F. nilgerrensis samples. Moreover, the root endophytic microbiomes of both strawberry species, especially the wild F. nilgerrensis, were mainly composed of potential biocontrol and beneficial bacteria, making them important sources for the isolation of these bacteria. This study is the first to compare the differences in nonrhizosphere and rhizosphere soils and root endogenous microorganisms between wild and cultivated strawberries. The findings have great value for the research of microbiomes, disease control, and germplasm innovation of strawberry.

More than a name: Mid‐Cretaceous amber fossils link crickets and mole crickets (Orthoptera, Ensifera)

AbstractGrylloidea (crickets) and Gryllotalpoidea (mole crickets and ant crickets) are relatively ancient lineages within Orthoptera but their fossil records are not very rich. They are currently considered sister clades within the Gryllidea but with obvious differences in morphology and ecological adaptations. We report a new gryllidean family, †Pseudogryllotalpidae fam. nov. with three new genera and four new species, viz. †Pseudogryllotalpa scalprata gen. et sp. nov., †Unidigitus longialatus gen. et sp. nov., †Petilus zhengi gen. et sp. nov. and †Chunxiania fascia sp. nov. from the mid‐Cretaceous of northern Myanmar (ca. 99 million years ago). Their external and short ovipositors and their modified fossorial forelegs suggest a soil‐inhabiting preference. This new family exhibits a series of ‘intermediate’ character states between Grylloidea and Gryllotalpoidea and seems to be a ‘transitional’ fossil group linking these two superfamilies. This new family was resolved as a sister group of the extant Gryllotalpoidea and provides a new insight into the relationship and evolution of Grylloidea and Gryllotalpoidea.

Experiencing semester abroad programs in a Thai higher educational institution: sociocultural adaptation and cultural challenges of German exchange students

ABSTRACT In the initial phase of participating in short-term semester abroad programs, newly arrived international students may face a lot of difficulties and challenging experiences living in Thai society. This phenomenological study reports on the issues of socio-cultural adaptation experienced by German exchange students while participating in semester abroad programs at a Thai university and mechanisms through which to address the concerns. From 109 students’ interview transcripts, the six groups of themes identified were (1) language barrier issues; (2) interpersonal communication issues; (3) academic-related issues; (4) personal interest/community involvement issues; (5) ecological adaptation issues; and (6) extra-curricular activity issues. The findings from this present study have implications for educators and all stakeholders working in the departments of international affairs and university administration to establish policies and practices for providing social support and tailoring study abroad programs to meet international students’ expectations, needs, and satisfaction.

Composition and Diversity of the Endobacteria and Ectobacteria of the Invasive Bark Beetle Hylurgus ligniperda (Fabricius) (Curculionidae: Scolytinae) in Newly Colonized Areas.

Hylurgus ligniperda (Fabricius) (Curculionidae: Scolytinae) is a new invasive pest beetle in China, which colonized the Shandong province, causing devastating damage. Originating in Europe, it has spread to Oceania, Asia, North and South America. Bacterial associates have been frequently reported to play a vital role in strengthening the ecological adaptations of bark and ambrosia beetles. The environmental adaptability of H. ligniperda may be supported by their associated bacteria. Bacterial communities colonizing different body parts of insects may have different functions. However, little is known about the bacteria associated with H. ligniperda and their potential involvement in facilitating the adaptation and invasion of the beetles into new environments. In this study, we employed high-throughput sequencing technology to analyze the bacterial communities associated with male and female adults of H. ligniperda by comparing those colonizing the elytra, prothorax, and gut. Results showed that the bacterial communities of male and female adults were similar, and the elytra samples had the highest bacterial diversity and richness, followed by the gut, while the prothorax had the lowest. The dominant phyla were Proteobacteria, Firmicutes, and Actinobacteriota, while the dominant genera were Serratia, Lactococcus, Rhodococcus, unclassified Enterobacteriaceae, and Gordonia. Among these, Rhodococcus and Gordonia were the specific genera of endobacteria and ectobacteria, respectively. Differences in the distribution of associated bacteria may suggest that they have different ecological functions for H. ligniperda. The results of functional prediction showed that bacteria were enriched in terpenoid backbone biosynthesis, degradation of aromatic compounds, limonene and pinene degradation, neomycin, kanamycin and gentamicin biosynthesis, indicating that they may assist their beetles in synthesizing pheromones, degrading toxic secondary metabolites of host trees, and antagonizing pathogenic fungi. These results help us understand the interaction between H. ligniperda and bacteria and highlight possible contributions to the invasion process.