Eco-compensation Standards Research Articles

Correction: Xiao et al. An Assessment of the Rational Range of Eco-Compensation Standards: A Case Study in the Nujiang Prefecture, Southwestern China. Land 2022, 11, 1417

In the original publication [...]

Interactive influences of ecosystem services and socioeconomic factors on watershed eco-compensation standard “popularization” based on natural based solutions

Watershed eco-compensation is a policy tool to realize watershed environment improvement and regional economic development. It is important to eliminate the influence of economic differences between upstream & downstream regions and realize the fairness of regional social development based on Natural based Solutions (NbS). At present, lack of clarity in coupling and coordination analysis of ecosystem services & socioeconomic based on NbS could hamper watershed eco-compensation standards “popularization” and reduce the ability to successfully ecological governance. To meet the needs of economic development and ecological service value realization, dynamic equilibrium game research based on multidimensional relationship coordination and a multi-objective optimization solution of economic benefit distribution was carried out. To achieve the bargaining Bayesian/Nash equilibrium of the watershed eco-compensation standard in the game, the existence conditions of the equilibrium solution of the eco-compensation standard based on the mixed equilibrium game implementation process were studied. To carry out the complete information dynamic game, the equilibrium solution of the watershed eco-compensation standard based on the dynamic transfer payment was solved, and the rational analysis of the dynamic Bayesian equilibrium game of bargaining based on the incentive compatibility mechanism was also discussed. Water quantity and quality eco-compensation can ensure balanced development between ecological protection and the social economy in the Mihe River Basin. Combined with the variation law of socioeconomic water intake-utilization standards and the water use value, the city of Shouguang City & Qingzhou City should pay Linqu County 4.78 million US$ and 1.29 million US$ as watershed eco-compensation standards per year based on NbS, respectively. To verify the rationality of the results derived from the economically optimal model, two modes of “bargaining” & “perfect competition”, were used to study the characteristics of the protocols generated by the equilibrium game, and the applicable conditions of the nonzero-sum game solution upstream and downstream of the watershed were also explored. Based on the nonzero-sum processing of the survey results, the current relationship between the input value of eco-compensation and the willingness to pay satisfies v≥c+1/4. Based on the dynamic game & Bayesian equilibrium solution of bargaining, the watershed eco-compensation quota of water quantity & quality is 6.07 million US$, the willingness to pay is 65.63 US$/month. These findings contribute to the quantifying process of bargaining & dynamic equilibrium by transforming “ambiguous” information to achieve sustainable ecosystem service management and develop socioeconomic strategies associated with different compensation features based on NbS, thus helping to inform watershed management.

An Assessment of the Rational Range of Eco-Compensation Standards: A Case Study in the Nujiang Prefecture, Southwestern China

Eco-compensation is an effective means of coordinating ecological protection and economic development, and the assessment of its standards is core content in the study of eco-compensation projects. To improve the operability of eco-compensation standards, taking Nujiang Prefecture as the study area, we combine the equivalent factor method and water footprint method to evaluate the ecosystem-service-value (ESV) spillover and use the market comparison method to calculate the opportunity cost. The final eco-compensation upper and lower limits model is constructed on the basis of the ESV spillover and opportunity cost. The results show the following: (1) the ecological protection of Nujiang Prefecture has been effective, based on the stabilization of its ESV after an initial increase. The main types of ecosystem services provided are regulation and provision services. Gongshan County makes the most significant contribution to the total ESV. (2) The ratio of the ESV self-consumption in Nujiang Prefecture shows a trend of first rising and then falling. This is mainly explained through the reduction in the use of industrial and agricultural water. After deducting self-consumption through the water footprint method, it can be observed that there is ecological spillover in Nujiang Prefecture. (3) The opportunity cost in Nujiang Prefecture increases yearly from 2005 to 2020 owing to ecological protection policies. Combined with the ESV spillover, it is determined that the rational range of the eco-compensation standard is between CNY 6.17 × 102 million and 120.01 × 102 million in 2005, between CNY 10.02 × 102 million and 128.25 × 102 million in 2010, between CNY 30.34 × 102 million and 197.12 × 102 million in 2015, and between CNY 41.97 × 102 million and 227.52 × 102 million in 2020. The current study can offer decision makers a more flexible eco-compensation standard while coordinating the contradiction between regional ecological protection and economic development.

Developing a conceptual model to quantify eco-compensation based on environmental and economic cost-benefit analysis for promoting the ecologically intensified agriculture

Eco-compensation is essential for promoting ecologically intensive agriculture to reduce the environmental impact of the agricultural sector. However, a comprehensive and performance-based tool to quantify eco-compensation is not yet available. Here, we present a comprehensive model of eco-compensation standards based on internal and external trade-offs (ESBIET) and their valuation methods based on farm-level cost-benefit analysis. We calculated the internal economic costs and benefits using conventional life cycle costing and profit analysis. The ecosystem service and disservice values were recorded as external benefits and costs, which were valued using the revealed preference approach and the Environmental Priorities Strategies model, respectively. We incorporated the Coase theorem and Pigou theory into this model to quantify government compensation, which complements market compensation. The ESBIET model was tested using a case study of greenhouse vegetable production in eight conventional (CON), eight organic (ORG), and seven community-supported agriculture (CSA) greenhouse vegetable production farms. This article also described the key features, potential users and future opportunities for improving our ESBITE model. At its core, the ESBIET model can be effectively used to design eco-compensation measures to promote ecologically intensified agriculture.

Accounting of Transboundary Ecocompensation Standards Based on Water Quantity Allocation and Water Quality Control Targets

Accounting of Transboundary Ecocompensation Standards Based on Water Quantity Allocation and Water Quality Control Targets

Comparisons and improvements of eco-compensation standards for water resource protection in the Middle Route of the South-to-North Water Diversion Project

Abstract Reasonable eco-compensation standards are conducive to increasing the enthusiasm of residents in the water source area of the water diversion project for ecological environmental protection and maintenance and for improving the water quality security of the water receiving area. In this paper, a comparative analysis of calculation mechanisms, formulas, and results of 7 types of eco-compensation standard methods for the Middle Route Project of the South-to-North Water Diversion Project in China is conducted. The research shows that the calculated results for the 7 types of methods differ greatly and considers that the cost and ecological service value methods are appropriate. Using this as the basic method to consider introducing market value of water resources, internal income of water source area, and government financial support for method improvement, the results show that the improved methods can reduce the gap between the per capita income of the water source area and the reference area, increase the satisfaction of both the water receiving area and the water source area, and provide support for overall socioeconomic development.

Quantitative assessment of eco-compensation standard from the perspective of ecosystem services: A case study of Erhai in China

Eco-compensation is an economic approach to improve ecosystem services (ESs) through coordinating the relationships among different stakeholders. However, it is crucial to set up appropriate eco-compensation standards. This study proposes an emergy-based eco-compensation accounting framework by linking it with the InVEST model and ArcGIS to calculate the eco-compensation standard from the perspective of ES improvement. Erhai Lake Basin (ELB) was selected as one case study area, in which its ESs were divided into three categories, i.e. provisioning services, regulating services and cultural services. Emergy values and emdollar values of different ESs in ELB were calculated for the study period of 2000–2015. Results show that both emergy values and emdollar values of provisioning services and cultural services increased significantly from 2000 to 2015. However, the emergy values of regulating services decreased during 2000–2015, while its emdollar values still increased. This indicates that it is critical to pay more attentions on regulating services since such services directly reflect ecosystem quality. The eco-compensation standards for different land types were then proposed so that suitable policies can be made. As such, the driving forces of ESs changes were uncovered and the feasibility of proposed eco-compensation standards was discussed. Key findings from this study can help relevant stakeholders to work together to prepare appropriate eco-compensation policies.

Determination of the Agricultural Eco-Compensation Standards in Ecological Fragile Poverty Areas Based on Emergy Synthesis

Eco-compensation is an important mechanism when applying the theory of ecosystem services to practical development, which translates the external and non-market value of the environment into real financial incentives for local actors. Scientifically formulating feasible and credible compensation standards is the most critical and key step to adjusting the benefits received by environment protectors and beneficiaries. The Inner Mongolia agro-pastoral zone is an important ecological area with an undeveloped economy in Northern China. The implementation of eco-compensation policies contributes to ecological restoration and poverty alleviation. Taking Horqin Left Back Banner, Inner Mongolia, China as a study case, a quantitative model of a non-point source pollution eco-compensation program was established by using emergy synthesis—a thermodynamics-based method in ecological economic systems—to create a comprehensive eco-compensation standard. The results showed that the eco-compensation amounts for non-point source pollution were generally below 10% of the regional gross domestic product (GDP). A 11–20% reduction in fertilizer would be accepted according to the field investigation and the optimal eco-compensation strategy reduced the phosphate fertilizer application by 20% with a compensation standard of $379.63/ha/year, which was similar to the farmers’ willingness to accept compensation. For the accurate creation of a non-point source pollution eco-compensation program, the emergy synthesis overcomes the inconsistency in the quantification of the material flow, ecological flow, and economic flow, guaranteeing the sustainable implementation of non-point source pollution eco-compensation projects.

Study on eco-compensation standard for adjacent administrative districts based on the maximum entropy production

The upper and lower limits of eco-compensation standards are theoretically determined respectively by ecosystem service value and opportunity cost. However, there are some unresolved problems in the study of the upper limit. The relationship between ecological service values and compensation standard is vague and there exists a huge gap in capital amount in practical applications. This paper proposes a solution of ecological service value analysis based eco-compensation standard in a real case between three administrative districts in E'zhou City, China. This research analysed the relationship of eco-compensation based on the principle of maximum entropy production and designed the calculation method of eco-compensation standard for adjacent administrative districts. It explored the research gap in the field of eco-compensation standard. As a result, Liangzi Lake district received 235.03 and 41.17 million CNY respectively from E'cheng and Huarong district in 2016. This study provides a novel and objective system solution of eco-compensation standard, which would facilitate the governments' financial transfer decision.

A Negotiation Model of Eco-Compensation Standards for Transboundary Water Pollution

The establishment of eco-compensation mechanism for transboundary water pollution has been a hot issue. The key point is the determination of compensation standards, which can not only consider respective benefits, but also reflect fairness and rationality of compensation. This paper first gave the gray compensation interval, and then used bargaining game to narrow the interval and got specific compensation standards. The bargaining model of eco-compensation standards under finite and infinite bargaining conditions was established by applying Rubinstein bargaining model. The established model was applied to Huojia East Stele Village section in Jiaozuo to analyze the determination of eco-compensation standards. The impacts of bidding order and discount factor on compensation standards was discussed. The impact factor analysis demonstrates, in finite bargaining, the compensation standard is related to discount factor, the duration of the biding stage, and the last bidder; in infinite bargaining, the standard is related to discount factor and the first bidder.

差异化的生态公益林生态补偿标准——以北京市为例

差异化的生态公益林生态补偿标准——以北京市为例

Transverse Eco-Compensation Standards for Water Conservation: A Case Study of the Middle Route Project of South-to-North Water Diversion in China

In China, the distribution of water resources is incompatible with the development of productivity. The construction of South-to-North Water Diversion Project has achieved inter-basin water diversion, and the project can alleviate the uneven distribution of water resources phenomenon effectively. However, in recent years, the aggregate effects of water pollution and water resource shortages have been serious. Establishing transverse eco-compensation mechanisms becomes the key method to achieve sustainable use of water resources. Based on statistical and questionnaire data, this paper uses the Opportunity Costs Method and Willingness to Pay approach to establish a transverse eco-compensation standard calculation model for the Middle Route Project of the Southto-North Water Diversion. The results show that the upper and lower limits of the transverse eco-compensation standard for the Middle Route Project is $2.52 billion and $2.20 billion every year, respectively. However, the paying and receiving standards varied widely among different compensation payers and compensation receivers. Meanwhile, the significant factors influencing the paying willingness of the receiver area citizens were age, education level, average revenue per month, knowledge about the South-to-North Water Diversion Project and recognition of the importance of eco-environmental integrity. This study began with a theoretical analysis, then analysed related problems related to calculating transverse eco-compensation standards for the Middle Route Project of the South-to-North Water Diversion by an empirical study. This empirical study helps to establish effective transverse eco-compensation mechanisma and promotea the development of effective policies and legislation.

Eco-compensation standards for agricultural water conservation: A case study of the paddy land-to-dry land program in China

Compensation programs ensure the efficacy of water conservation programs and sustainability of interregional water cooperation. Here, a water conservation compensation standard model based on the cost and contribution to benefits regarding water quality and quantity was constructed and then applied to the Paddy Land-to-Dry Land Program (PLDLP) in the Beijing-Hebei region of China. We found that the PLDLP reduced the pollution load of total nitrogen and total phosphorous to downstream areas by 27.63% and 88.53% respectively; runoff to downstream areas increased by 4.22%. Without considering the labor costs of family members, the net income of farmers decreased 41.65%, and the compensation standard was calculated at 5165.41 CNY per ha. From the perspective of social comprehensive value, income generated from becoming migrant worker was treated as an opportunity cost for farmers and under this model the net income of farmers decreased 10.99% and compensation standard was calculated at 1362.95 CNY per ha.

Eco-compensation standards for sustaining high flow events below hydropower plants

Abstract High flow events (including both the high flow pulses and floods) exert many critical ecological functions in riverine ecosystems and their elimination will lead to severe ecological degradation. However, common hydropower operations are only required to legally maintain the minimum environmental flows (e-flows). The extra release of high flow events will result in revenue loss of hydropower producers. In this research, we propose an approach to assessing the eco-compensation standard which is necessary to compensate the loss of hydropower producers and promote the release of high flows to downstream rivers. The scenario tree approach is adopted for the generation of possible scenarios of flows and electricity prices to deal with the uncertainties of the two factors in deregulated electricity markets. A stochastic linear programming method is proposed to determine the maximum mean annual revenues under two e-flow provision scenarios, i.e., only sustaining the minimum e-flows (scenario 1) and sustaining both the minimum e-flows and a specified number of high flow events (scenario 2). The revenue difference under the two e-flow scenarios is set as the eco-compensation standard. A case study in the Wangkuai reservoir, China, demonstrates that the eco-compensation standard is obviously influenced by the installed hydropower generation capacity (IHGC) and the number of high flow events planned to be released. Moreover, the greatest standards may be not corresponding to a very large IHGC.

Theoretical Study of Watershed Eco-Compensation Standards

Watershed eco-compensation is an effective way to solve conflicts over water allocation and ecological destruction problems in the exploitation of water resources. Despite an increasing interest in the topic, the researches has neglected the effect of water quality and lacked systematic calculation method. In this study we reviewed and analyzed the current literature and proposedatheoretical framework to improve the calculation of co-compensation standard.Considering the perspectives of the river ecosystems, forest ecosystems and wetland ecosystems, the benefit compensation standard was determined by the input-output corresponding relationship. Based on the opportunity costs related to limiting development and water conservation loss, the eco-compensation standard was calculated.In order to eliminate the defects of eco-compensation implementation, the improvement suggestions were proposed for the compensation standard calculation and implementation.

Determining eco-compensation standards based on the ecosystem services value of the mountain ecological forests in Beijing, China

Ecological forests play a key role in the maintenance of urban ecological security in Beijing, and 91% of these ecosystems are located in mountain areas. To better address the issues that are related to ecological conservation and the environmental, eco-compensation programs that target mountain ecological forests have been implemented by the local government since 2004. However, these eco-compensation programs that are currently conducted in Beijing now are still confronted with issues regarding payment standards. In this study, three eco-compensation standards for the mountain ecological forests in Beijing are presented based on the ecosystem services value and location diversity indicators that include major function oriented zoning, population density, and ecological importance and ecological fragility. The average payment in Beijing varies from 1607RMB/ha/a to 2051RMB/ha/a and is approximately from 0.7 to 1.2 times higher than the current standard. The increase from the current payment standard to the recommended ones is consistent with recent social and economic development in Beijing. The recommended eco-compensation standards also reflect the relative importance of forest ecosystem services that consider geographical location. These recommended standards also have the potential for use in the establishment of differentiated compensation standards based on the different protection results of mountain ecological forests. This study will help policy and decision makers to design eco-compensation initiatives with a high success rate and contribute to the conservation and sustainability of the forest resources in Beijing.

Study on Standard Amount of Agricultural Eco-compensation Based on Evaluation of Agricultural Ecosystem Services

To build scientific and reasonable agricultural eco-compensation standard is key and important factors for sustainability development of Chinese agriculture. Based on a comprehensive review of a large number of domestic and foreign articles on agricultural eco-compensation standards and polices, I notice that a majority of the studies focus on the qualitative aspects of the eco-compensation system, only very few studies investigate the quantitative aspect of the issue. In practice, the standard amount of eco-compensation is commonly based on the regional economy or the stakeholder’s willingness to pay to compensate the agricultural ecosystem services because there is lagged research on evaluation of ecosystem services. Therefore, it takes Henan Province as an example and analyses the definition of agricultural ecosystem services and choose methods of these ecosystem services. And it calculates the value of each ecosystem service in 2013: 8.28*1010RMB,56.19*1010 RMB,7.35*1010 RMB,2.17*1010 RMB,3.73*1010 RMB,4.4*1010 RMB,0.04*1010 RMB, and the total amount was up to 82.16*1010 RMB. Then the paper designs the method of agricultural eco-compensation under social and economic conditions, which it reflects the social development and dynamics of standard of agricultural eco-compensation. Based on theoretical analysis, it calculates the amount of agricultural eco-compensation on Henan in 2013: 19875.45RMB /hm2, and predicts the amount in 2015:28365.45RMB/hm2. Finally, based on theoretical and practical analysis, the paper draw conclusions: the research on standard of agricultural eco-compensation should pay more attention to evaluation of agro-ecosystem services and build the scientific methodological system in the field, which makes improvement in availability of these agricultural policies in China.

A Model of Horizontal and Vertical Allocation of Eco-Compensation Responsibility Among Administrative Areas: A Study Based on Ecosystem Services Value Density

The implementation of eco-compensation schemes demands large capital investment. Therefore, the raising and allocation of funds is critical to the smooth operation of an eco-compensation mechanism. However, the majority of stud- ies on eco-compensation dwell on the development of compensation standards and the allocation of compensation funds, with very few studies considering the allocation of compensation responsibility among multiple compensation providers. Choosing Zhongshan as a case, this paper explores how to reasonably allocate the responsibility among the compensation providers in case of a demand for larger compensation due to any changes in the eco-compensation standards, so as to successfully raise the required funds for compensation. In accordance with the Beneficiary Pays Principle, and for the purpose of ensuring the successful raising of the compensation funds, this paper constructs a model comprising three eco- compensation providers, including the provincial and municipal government as well as the towns receiving the spillover effect of ecosystem services provided by other townships. After analyzing the spatial distribution of ecosystem services, it further builds a model of compensation responsibility allocation (CRA) among townships in connection with regional ecosystem services value density and the gap between demand and supply of ecosystem service value. At the end, the pa- per simulates the results of CRA among the three eco-compensation providers in Zhongshan under five scenarios.

Economic Value of Water Resources of the Upper Reaches of the Xin'an River Basin, China

Estimating the value of water resources not only forms the basis of water rights transactions between upstream and downstream and eco-compensation standards, but also provides scientific data for the reasonable establishment of local water prices and promotes sustainable use and efficient management. Here, we estimate the economic value of the water resources of the upper reaches of the Xin'an River basin. Our purpose is to establish theoretical support for eco—compensation standardization and provide data for the protection of water resources and water price reform.

Socioeconomic Impact of Forest Eco-compensation Mechanism in Hainan Province of China

The establishment of the forest eco-compensation mechanism could realize the value of the forest ecosystem services partly or thoroughly, stress the equality of the stakeholders, encourage public participation in forest ecosystem tendering, and strengthen the capacity of sustainable management. Taking the Hainan province as an example, this study focuses on the analysis of major socioeconomic and ecological impacts of forest eco-compensation in the Qiongzhong County and Lingshui County, and recommends approaches and practices for the establishment of the eco-compensation mechanism in the Hainan Province. Data were collected from a household questionnaire survey. Altogether 120 households have been interviewed, and Statistical Product and Service Solutions (SPSS) was applied for data analysis. Most of the respondents held a positive attitude toward the forest eco-compensation policy which has contributed to the improvement of environmental quality. However, forest protection has limited the opportunities for the income growth of local communities, who have never got sufficient compensation from either the central or local governments. Insufficient financial support to forest institutions and local communities involved in forest management has led to major conflicts in forest management, such as, the conflict between forest protection and local economic development, and decrease in arable land area and increase in surplus labor force. On the basis of case study results, the core issues of forest eco-compensation mechanism in Hainan province are discussed. Finally, suggestions and recommendations that cover forest eco-compensation standards, management institutions, and community capacity building and diversification of financing channels, have been made for the establishment of forest eco-compensation mechanism in Hainan.