Eating Motivation Research Articles

Indulging in Tempting Yet Unhealthy Delights: Exploring the Moderating Influence of Gender and Motivation for Healthy and Sustainable Eating

Individuals frequently encounter alluring food temptations that can disrupt their efforts to follow a healthy diet. These temptations may trigger pleasurable thoughts and sensations, potentially leading to unhealthy eating habits and obesity, which misalign with the goals of sustainable food systems to promote overall well-being. However, there is limited knowledge regarding how individual differences such as gender and motivation for healthy eating might impact individuals’ responses to unhealthy food temptations. In an experimental investigation, 245 participants were exposed to a tasty but low-nutrient food product (potato crisps). The results provide several new insights: (a) when individuals’ motivation for healthy eating is low, pleasurable experiences have a positive impact on perceived dietary quality; (b) pleasurable feelings also directly reduce willingness to consume potato crisps; (c) gender influences the relationship between pleasure-feeling and willingness to eat, with a negative relationship for women and a non-significant relationship for men; and (d) among women, there is a positive relationship between arousal and willingness to eat, while this relationship is non-significant for men. This study adds to the body of knowledge already available on food temptations, nutrition, and sustainable eating.

The Veg∗n Eating Motives Inventory Plus (VEMI+): A measure of health, environment, animal rights, disgust, social, pandemic and zoonotic diseases, and farm workers’ rights motives

Health, environmental concern, and animal rights are established motives for reduced meat consumption that can be measured by the Vegetarian Eating Motives Inventory (VEMI). This preregistered study aimed to expand the VEMI to include four less-studied motives: disgust, social, concern about zoonotic diseases and pandemics, and concern for workers' rights. We had three objectives: to combine the seven motives into a comprehensive model, to test if the VEMI+ scales function equivalently across omnivore and vegan groups, and to validate and differentiate these motives against external measures and meat reduction appeals. In samples of 731 omnivores and 731 vegans (total N = 1,462), we found support for the measurement invariance of a seven-factor structure across groups and created a scale with reliable measures for each dimension (ω total between 0.82 and 0.97). Vegans scored higher overall, with substantially higher scores on environmental concern, animal rights, disgust, and zoonotic disease concerns, while omnivores had slightly higher scores on health, social, and workers’ rights scales. Scale scores had expected correlations with criterion measures and differentially predicted support for motive-tailored appeals. This study enhances our understanding of dietary motivations and provides a valuable tool for future research.

Development and Validation of the Motivation for Healthy Eating Behavior Scale (MHEBS) in the Bengali-Speaking Adults

Purpose: This study aimed to develop and validate a scale to assess the motivation for healthy eating behavior in Bengali-speaking adults. Methodology: The study was cross-sectional in nature and was conducted online via Google Forms. A total of 220 Bengali-speaking adults participated in the study. A literature review was conducted to generate an item pool regarding motivation for healthy eating. The content validity of the items was evaluated by an expert panel from related fields. Based on their responses, the items were modified, and 15 items were assessed for face validity. The scale’s construct validity was assessed by performing an Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA). The reliability of the scale was examined using the internal consistency reliability coefficient or Cronbach’s alpha. To establish the convergent and divergent validity of the scale, the Satisfaction with Life Scale (SWLS) and Fear of COVID-19 Scale (FCV-19S) scale were used. Major Findings: The MHEBS showed good content and face validity. The internal consistency reliability of the scale was in the acceptable range with Cronbach’s alpha value of 0.820. The EFA suggested a three-factor scale structure, and the factors were “benefits of healthy eating”, “external regulation”, and “affordability”. The scale also showed acceptable convergent and divergent validity with SWLS and FCV-19S respectively. Implications: MHEBS — a 15-item 5-point Likert scale — is the first developed scale to measure the motivation for healthy eating behavior in the Bengali-speaking adult population. The scale would help identify what motivates Bengali adults to for maintaining healthy eating behavior. In addition, it would aid program planners to effectively design health promotion strategies as well as health practitioners and dietitians to counsel patients before applying dietary behavior change interventions. Bioresearch Commu. 10(2): 1557-1564, 2024 (July)

Orthorectic behavior among students and motivation for physical activity, dietary habits, and restrictive eating.

Orthorexia lacks official recognition as an eating disorder; however, orthorexic behaviors, associated with a stringent selection of food, may serve as a predisposing factor to the development of eating disorders. It is characterized by an obsessive preoccupation with healthy eating and strict dietary standards, often prevalent in high-risk groups such as athletes and individuals concerned with their physical appearance. The objective of this study was to evaluate the incidence of orthorexia among students exhibiting varying lifestyles (including dietary habits and levels of physical activity, along with their respective motivational factors). The research involved 600 participants equally distributed between health-related (HRF) and non-health-related (NRF) academic categories, with the majority of participants in the HRF category being women. Assessments included BMI calculations, dietary evaluation based on Polish standards, categorization of physical activity levels, the EMI-2 questionnaire on motivation to exercise, the DOS test for orthorexia propensity, and the TFEQ-13 questionnaire for eating behavior. Results showed that primary motivators for physical activity included disease prevention, health maintenance, strength/endurance, and physical appearance. Orthorexia tendencies were prevalent, particularly in the HRF group, linked to lower BMI, better diet quality, higher physical activity levels, and a higher prevalence of restrictive eating. In conclusion, students in health-related fields, driven by a strong health consciousness, are at risk of orthorexia. This emphasizes the need for balanced health education and support. Orthorexic tendencies are associated with distorted perceptions of food portions and calories, underscoring the importance of awareness and intervention.

Profiles of intuitive eating in adults: the role of self-esteem, interoceptive awareness, and motivation for healthy eating

ObjectiveIntuitive eating is an eating behavior that has recently come to use mainly in the young population. Knowing that the Lebanese cultural diet differs from other countries, the purpose of this study was to investigate if there is a relationship between self-esteem, interoceptive awareness, and motivation for healthy eating in a sample of Lebanese adults using a Latent Profile Analysis approach.DesignCross-sectional study.SettingLebanese governorates.Participants359 Lebanese participants enrolled in this study (mean age: 22.75 ± 7.04 years, 40.1% males), through convenience sampling in several Lebanese governorates. Participants were asked to fill anonymously the following scales: The Intuitive Eating Scale (IES-2), the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale, the Multidimensional Assessment of Interoceptive Awareness Scale (MAIA), and the Motivation for Healthy Eating Scale (MHES).ResultsOur findings revealed four profiles: profile 1 (n = 67; 18.66%) characterized by high SE and intermediate interoceptive awareness and motivation for healthy eating; profile 2 (n = 86; 23.97%) presented high SE, interoceptive awareness, and motivation for healthy eating; profile 3 (n = 86; 23.96%) characterized by high SE, interoceptive awareness, and motivation for healthy eating; class 4 (n = 108; 30.08) described by low SE, intermediate interoceptive awareness, and motivation for healthy eating One-way analysis of variance did not observe a significant difference between the four profiles based on intuitive eating (F = 1.810; p = 0.145; ɳp2 = 0.015).ConclusionsAmong a sample of Lebanese people, four profiles of interoceptive awareness, motivation for healthy eating, and self-esteem were observed, with no difference concerning intuitive eating.

Health, environmental, and animal rights motives among omnivores, vegetarians, and vegans and the associations with meat, dairy, and egg commitment

Dietary groups differ from each other in how much they value health, environmental, and animal rights motives to reduce or quit meat consumption. In an online survey study, we investigated whether omnivores (N = 237), vegetarians (N = 151), and vegans (N = 377) not only differ in their motives for meat reduction or meat-free diets (vegetarian eating motives) but also in their motives for dairy and egg reduction or the adoption of a fully plant-based diet (vegan eating motives), and how strongly these motives are associated with lower commitment to eating meat, dairy, and egg products. The results showed that omnivores rated health as the most important motive for both meat and dairy/egg reduction. However, among omnivores, only environmental and animal rights motives, and not health, were associated with reduced meat and dairy commitment, while environmental motives were also associated with reduced egg commitment. Vegetarians and vegans were more strongly motivated by environmental and animal rights concerns for meat and dairy/egg reduction compared with omnivores, yet vegetarians were less strongly motivated by animal rights than vegans, especially for dairy/egg reduction. However, among vegetarians, only animal rights motives, and not environmental and health motives, were associated with lower dairy and egg commitment. These findings provide new insights into the relative importance of dietary motives for reducing meat, dairy, and egg commitment among different dietary groups and highlight the importance of environmental and animal rights motives for reducing animal product commitment among omnivores and of animal rights motives for reducing dairy and egg commitment among vegetarians.

The effect of motivation type on intake and nutritional status of vitamin B12, omega-3 fatty acids, iron and nutrition knowledge in individuals following a vegan diet

The fundamental principle of veganism is to avoid all possible animal exploitation and therefore, animal ethics has always been a primary motivator. Nowadays, the environment and health are also common motivators. Omission of all animal products leads to dietary exclusion of vitamin B12, limited intake of omega-3 fatty acids, specifically EPA and DHA, and intake of low bioavailable iron sources1. Obtaining the knowledge to appropriately plan and replace nutrients through food or supplementation is key to avoiding deficiencies and subsequent consequences. This study aimed to determine the effect of motivation for being vegan on intake of key nutrients and nutritional knowledge. This cross-sectional, observational study recruited participants, who had followed a vegan diet for minimum 2 years. Demographics and nutrition knowledge were obtained from questionnaires. Motivation type was determined using the validated vegetarian eating motives inventory (VEMI) – participants scored the importance of animal ethic, environment and health. Intakes of vitamin B12 and iron, were collected using a 4-day food diary and assessed against Estimated Average Requirement (EAR). Blood samples were taken to determine status of vitamin B12, haemoglobin, serum ferritin, and omega-3 index. Omega-3 index score ≤4 indicates increased risk of coronary heart disease. Animal ethics was the greatest motivator to become vegan, with 83.5% of participants scoring it as very important, compared to 71.7% of people stating the environment, and 53.3% stating health. No association was found between all motivation types and intake of vitamin B12 and iron, nor omega-3 index. Mean vitamin B12 intake (supplements excluded) of 2.11ug/day ± 3.43 exceeded the EAR of 2.0ug/day for both men and women, however intakes ranged between 0.00 and 37.63ug/day. Mean intake of iron (18.77mg/day) exceeded the EAR for both men and women. Overall mean omega-3 index was 3.16%. Both men (162.24g/L) and women (151.44g/L) had adequate mean Hb serum concentrations. Mean serum ferritin was within normal range for both men (64.86ug/L ± 43.48) and women (32.55ug/L ± 26.04). Overall mean serum vitamin B12 was within normal range (316.54pmol/L ± 146.18), however a large range was observed from 72.00pmol/L to 1,015pmol/L. Males and females had similar knowledge, with only one question regarding fibre content in cornflakes found to be significantly different (P = 0.012). Knowledge was varied e.g., 100% of participants could identify that pasta was a carbohydrate source, yet could not identify which fats are most important to reduce. Mean vitamin B12 intake exceeding EAR and normal status despite limited vegan sources, indicates high consumption of high bioavailable fortified foods, and supplementation. Iron status shows large consumption of iron rich foods to overcome bioavailability issues, reflected by adequate iron intake, after increasing EAR by 80% to meet recommendations. The mean omega-3 index shows a low cardioprotective omega-3 fatty acid intake.

Can an apple a day keep COVID-19 away? A cluster analysis of the long-term COVID-19 pandemic’s impact on the consumption of apples in Italy

PurposeApples have always been considered a healthy product able to provide curative properties to consumers. In Italy, there is a long tradition of apple consumption and production both as a fresh product and as processed food. However, as with many other products, the consumption of fruits and vegetables and, more specifically apples, has been drastically affected by the first lockdown in 2020. In this project, the authors investigate whether the change in consumption habits had long-lasting consequences beyond 2020 and what are the main eating motivations, food-related behavior and socio-demographic affecting the consumption of fruits and vegetables after the pandemic.Design/methodology/approachThe authors ran two online surveys with 1,000 Italian consumers across a year (from October 2021 to December 2022). In the study, participants answered questions about their consumption habits and their eating motives. Out of 1,000 consumers, the authors included in the final analysis only the participants who answered both surveys, leaving a final sample of 651 consumers.FindingsThe results show that participants have allocated more budget to fruit and vegetables after the lockdown than before it. Moreover, consumers reported an average increase in the consumption of apples. However, the increase was more pronounced for people aged between 30 and 50 years old and identified as female. After showing the difference across time, a cluster analysis identified three main segments that differ in their eating motives, place of purchase and area of residence.Practical implicationsOverall, the results contribute to a better understanding of how the global pandemic is still affecting people's daily life. Moreover, the findings can be used to guide the marketing and communication strategies of companies in the food sector.Originality/valueTo the best of the authors' knowledge, this is the first study that investigates changes in the consumption of fruits and vegetables, and, more specifically, apples, in Italy more than one year after the beginning of the COVID-19 pandemic. Moreover, the study proposes a classification of consumers based on their habits in a time frame during which the COVID-19 wave was at its bottom which is not currently present in the literature.

Hedonic Eating Scale for Adolescents (HES-A): Development, Factor Structure, Validity and Reliability for Adolescents

Aim: Due to the need for a measurement tool that can be used to detect hedonic eating in adolescence, the aim of this research is to develop the Hedonic Eating Scale for Adolescents and examine its factor structure, validity, and reliability. 
 Material and Method: After Hedonic Eating Scale for Adolescents was created, the research was conducted with the participation of 324 volunteer adolescents. Information form, Hedonic Eating Scale for Adolescents, the Yale Food Addiction Scale, and the Turkish Palatable Eating Motives Scale were used as data collection tools. 
 Results: As a result of the Explanatory Factor Analysis, Hedonic Eating Scale for Adolescents items were collected under two factors as "Eating Pleasure" and "Controlled Eating". Confirmatory Factor Analysis results showed that the fit indices were at an acceptable level. Cronbach's alpha value of Hedonic Eating Scale for Adolescents is 0.943. The moderate positive correlations between Hedonic Eating Scale for Adolescents and the Yale Food Addiction Scale, and the Turkish Palatable Eating Motives Scale (r=0.474 and r=0.540; p

The magic is in the mix: a uses and gratifications approach to the cross-media use of food-related media content

ABSTRACT Food media content has recently grown tremendously in quantity and types. To understand food media’s popularity and the role they play for their audience members, this paper applies a uses and gratifications (U&G) approach to study the recipients’ motives for using or encountering various food media. Where do they come across media messages about food? Do they consciously or unconsciously seek or use them, and why? How do they perceive the outcomes of using food media? Twelve focus group interviews were conducted combined with a photovoice task. Results indicate that many of the encounters with food media were accidental in nature. In total, seven gratifications for using food media were confirmed: education, entertainment, social utility, identity-building, passing the time, motivations for healthier eating, and making grocery choices. Affordance-driven gratifications were ease-of-use of a medium, accessibility of -, trust in -, and emotional connection to the medium. This study forms a basis for further audience-centered research on food content so that both scholars and content creators can better understand how food media content can meet recipients’ needs and how it can be employed in communication strategies regarding, for example, conveying nutritional information or providing entertainment.

Intrinsic motivation for physical activity, healthy eating, and self-weighing in association with corresponding behaviors in early pregnancy

Healthy lifestyle behaviors influence maternal cardiovascular health, but motivation for them in pregnancy is poorly understood. We examined whether intrinsic motivation (assessed on 5-point scales for each behavior) is associated with three lifestyle behaviors in early pregnancy: physical activity, by intensity level; healthy eating, quantified with the Alternate Healthy Eating Index for Pregnancy (AHEI-P); and weight self-monitoring, a standard weight management technique. Participants in the Northern California Pregnancy, Lifestyle and Environment Study (PETALS) population-based cohort completed validated surveys in early pregnancy (2017–18; N = 472; 22 % Asian, 6 % Black, 30 % Hispanic, 13 % multiracial, 30 % White). Cross-sectional data were analyzed in 2021–22. Overall, 40.7 % (n = 192) met United States national physical activity guidelines; the average AHEI-P score was 62.3 out of 130 (SD 11.4); and 36.9 % reported regular self-weighing (≥once/week; n = 174). In models adjusted for participant characteristics, 1-unit increases in intrinsic motivation were associated with increased likelihood of meeting physical activity guidelines (risk ratio [95 % CI]: 1.66 [1.48, 1.86], p < 0.0001); meeting sample-specific 75th percentiles for vigorous physical activity (1.70 [1.44, 1.99], p < 0.0001) and AHEI-P (1.75 [1.33, 2.31], p < 0.0001); and regular self-weighing (2.13 [1.92, 2.37], p < 0.0001). A 1-unit increase in intrinsic motivation lowered the risk of meeting the 75th percentile for sedentary behavior (0.79 [0.67, 0.92], p < 0.003). Intrinsic motivation was not associated with reaching 75th percentiles for total, light, or moderate activity. Intrinsic motivation is associated with physical activity, healthy eating, and self-weighing among diverse individuals in early pregnancy. Results can inform intervention design to promote maternal health via increased enjoyment of lifestyle behaviors.

Motives and food craving: Associations with frequency of hyper-palatable food intake among college students

BackgroundCollege food environments provide wide access to hyper-palatable foods (HPF). Palatable eating motives and craving are individual factors that may impact HPF intake. Nevertheless, no study to date has examined the relationship between these factors and frequency of HPF intake in a dormitory all-you-can-eat-style cafeteria meal, a typical college food setting. MethodsCollege students (N = 218) self-reported frequency of HPF intake at a college cafeteria meal and their frequency of HPF intake in the overall diet. Quasipoisson and logistic regression models tested whether palatable eating motives (assessed via the Palatable Eating Motives Scale) and craving (assessed via the Food Craving Inventory) were associated with the rate of HPF intake during the cafeteria meal and excess frequency of HPF intake in the overall diet. ResultsCraving was associated with a 19% higher rate of HPF intake during the cafeteria meal (RR = 1.19; p = .015) and a >2-fold higher likelihood of excess frequency of HPF intake the overall diet (OR = 2.69; p < .001). Coping motive was associated with an 87% higher likelihood of excess frequency of HPF intake in the overall diet (OR = 1.87; p = .002), but not in the cafeteria meal. Reward enhancement, social and conformity motives were not significantly associated with the frequency of HPF intake in either setting. ConclusionsResults highlight the role of craving and coping motive in the frequency of HPF intake among college students. Prevention efforts may consider targeting craving and eating to cope to potentially address frequency of HPF intake among college students.

707-P: Motivation for Maternal Healthy Lifestyle Behaviors—Implications for the Perinatal Period

Background: Healthy lifestyle behaviors are critical to maternal cardiometabolic health. Yet little research examines whether motivations for these behaviors shift from pregnancy—considered a time of strong motivation for self-care—to postpartum, often a vulnerable period marked by weight retention and barriers to self-care. Methods: We prospectively examined intrinsic motivation from early pregnancy to 1-year postpartum for 3 key behaviors: self-monitoring of weight (i.e., self-weighing, a standard weight management technique); healthy eating; and physical activity (PA) in the Pregnancy, Lifestyle and Environment Study-2 (PETALS-2). Diverse participants (N=167; 20% Asian, 7% Black, 27% Hispanic, 17% multiracial, 30% White) completed validated surveys at 10-13 weeks’ gestation and 1-year postpartum; higher scores on 5-point scales indicated greater motivation. Results: Overall, motivation for self-weighing was similarly low in pregnancy as postpartum (mean [SD] = 2.53 [0.84] vs. 2.42 [0.84]; p=.16). Motivation for healthy eating was descriptively higher, but with a non-significant trend toward decline over time (3.93 [0.66] vs. 3.83 [0.83]; p=.06). Motivation for PA was moderate and stable (3.32 [1.08] vs. 3.35 [1.03]; p=0.66). In regression analyses adjusted for education, race/ethnicity, pre-pregnancy BMI, and parity, motivation for PA declined significantly more over time among older vs. younger participants (40-44 vs. 18-24 years of age; score difference [95% CI]: -1.16 [-1.99, -0.32], p=.007). Conclusions: Intrinsic motivation for key lifestyle behaviors was generally stable from early pregnancy to 1-year postpartum, although older age was linked to decline in motivation for PA over time. Interventions to improve cardiometabolic health could capitalize on comparatively high motivation for healthy eating, while mitigating consistently low motivation for self-weighing and declining motivation for PA among older individuals in the perinatal period. Disclosure S.D.Brown: None. M.M.Hedderson: None. A.Millman: None. S.Daredia: None. H.Serrato bandera: None. C.Quesenberry: None. A.Ferrara: None. Funding National Institutes of Health (R01HL142996)

Emotions and Food Consumption: Emotional Eating Behavior in a European Population.

Emotion can reflect in the perception of food consumption. An increase in food intake during emotional and psychological conditions may have a negative impact on human health. The aim of this cross-sectional study was to determine the associations between food consumption, emotional eating behavior, and emotional conditions such as stress, depression, loneliness, boredom eating, maintaining vigilance and alertness, and emotional food consolation. We used a Motivations for Food Choices Questionnaire (Eating Motivations, EATMOT) to determine the emotional aspects of food consumption in 9052 respondents living in 12 European countries between October 2017 and March 2018. Ordinal linear regression was used to identify the associations between the emotional eating behavior and emotional conditions such as stress, depression, loneliness, emotional consolation, and reasons to improve physical and psychological conditions. The regression models confirmed the associations between food consumption, emotional conditions, and emotional eating behavior. Associations were found between the emotional eating behavior and stress (odds ratio (OR) = 1.30, 95% confidence interval (CI) = 1.07-1.60, p = 0.010), depressive mood (OR = 1.41, 95% CI = 1.40-1.43, p < 0.001), loneliness (OR = 1.60, 95% CI = 1.58-1.62, p < 0.001), boredom (OR = 1.37, 95% CI = 1.36-1.39, p < 0.001), and emotional consolation (OR = 1.55, 95% CI = 1.54-1.57, p < 0.001). Emotional eating was associated with an effort to improve physical and psychological conditions, such as controlling body weight (OR = 1.11, 95% CI = 1.10-1.12, p < 0.001), keeping awake and alert (OR = 1.19, 95% CI = 1.19-1.20, p < 0.001) and consumption to feel good (OR = 1.22, 95% CI = 1.21-1.22, p < 0.001). In conclusion, emotions might provoke emotional eating behavior. The appropriate way to handle stress, depression, or other emotional states is important in conditions of being emotionally overwhelmed. The public should be educated on how to handle different emotional states. The focus should be moved somehow from emotional eating and the consumption of unhealthy food to healthy lifestyle practices, including regular exercise and healthy eating habits. Thus, it is necessary to halt these negative health effects on human health through public health programs.

Determinantes de comportamentos alimentares desordenados: índice de massa corporal, alimentação emocional, restrição alimentar e motivos para comer alimentos palatáveis

ABSTRACT Objective: The study aimed to investigate the relationships between body mass index, reasons for consuming palatable foods, emotional eating, cognitive dietary restraint, and disordered eating behaviors in young adults. Methods: This study was conducted with 800 young adults, in Ankara, Türkiye. A questionnaire consisting of questions about socio-demographic characteristics, health status, and instruments including Eating Attitudes Test-26, Emotional Appetite Questionnaire, Palatable Eating Motives Scale, and The Three-Factor Eating Questionnaire were applied through face-to-face interviews. Results: According to the Eating Attitudes Test-26, 17.2% of males and 27.7% of females were at risk for disordered eating behaviors (χ2=9.750, p=0.002). The mean scores of the Three-Factor Eating Questionnaire-emotional eating, cognitive restraint subscales, and the positive and negative scores of the Emotional Appetite Questionnaire were higher in males than in females (p&lt;0.05). The mean scores of the Palatable Eating Motives Scale-coping and reward enhancement motives were higher in females, while the mean score for the conformity motives was significantly higher in males. Body mass index, Three-Factor Eating Questionnaire-cognitive restraint subscale, Emotional Appetite Questionnaire-negative, and PEMS-conformity motives were found for predictors for Eating Attitudes Test-26 (all p&lt;0.05). Conclusion: The results showed a high tendency for emotional eating, consumption of palatable foods, and cognitive dietary restraint in young adults, and these factors were considered determinants for eating disorders.

Investigating the impact of eating norms and collective autonomy support vs. collective control on unhealthy eating and its internalization.

Our eating behaviors are highly influenced by those of individuals surrounding us and the groups we belong to. The first goal of this experiment was to determine how social norms that encourage (pro-) vs. discourage (anti-) unhealthy eating influence people’s intentions and motivations to eat unhealthily. Since these norms can be conveyed by one’s group in a manner that either promotes group members’ autonomy (i.e., collective autonomy support), or pressures them into eating certain foods (i.e., collective control), the experiment also tests which of these types of messages promotes the highest conformity to group norms. Hence, the second goal of this experiment was to investigate this synergetic effect of pro- vs anti-unhealthy eating norms and of collective autonomy support vs. collective control on participants’ unhealthy eating intentions and their motivations for unhealthy eating. An experimental study (N = 341) using a 2 (eating norm: pro-unhealthy eating norm vs. anti-unhealthy eating norm) x 3 (type of group support: collective autonomy support vs. collective control vs. no support) design was conducted. Results showed that pro-unhealthy eating norms increased participants’ intentions to eat salty and fatty food, but also their amotivation (i.e., lack of motivation) for unhealthy eating relative to anti-unhealthy eating norms. In addition, when pro-unhealthy eating was encouraged in a controlling (vs. in an autonomy supportive) manner, participants reported higher intentions to eat tofu tacos. Finally, when pro-unhealthy eating was promoted by supporting group members’ autonomy, participants reported higher integrated regulation, i.e., a highly internalized motivation, for unhealthy eating. These results demonstrate that eating norms do not impact all types of unhealthy food consumption in the same manner, and that collective control may be motivating in uncertain contexts; furthermore, when individuals’ autonomy is supported and promoted by other group members, they are more susceptible to integrate unhealthy eating in their life.

Relationships Between IKIGAI Well-Being and Motivation for Autonomous Regulation of Eating and Exercise for Health - Included the Relevance Between Sense of Coherence and Social Support.

Self-regulated motivation is associated with better behavior change, health, and hedonic well-being in the health domain. Meanwhile, there are evidences that eudaemonic well-being contributes to health. As well as reducing lifestyle diseases, the promotion of IKIGAI well-being (encompassing hedonic and eudaemonic well-being) has been targeted in Japan. However, little is known about the impact of IKIGAI well-being on the motivation for health. This study explored the relationships between autonomous motivation for eating and exercise for health, IKIGAI well-being, sense of coherence, and social support. The participants were 622 Japanese (269 males and 353 females, aged 20 to 59years). They completed a questionnaire on motivation for healthy eating (MHE), exercise motivation for health (EMH), sense of coherence, social support, and IKIGAI well-being. IKIGAI well-being was positively associated to the relative autonomy index (RAI)-MHE and RAI-EMH. Social support exerted a positive effect on sense of coherence and IKIGAI well-being; sense of coherence positively affected IKIGAI well-being. The invariances of the model across groups, such as gender, age, and subjective economic status, were verified using multiple-group structural equation models. With IKIGAI well-being as a mediating factor, social support and sense of coherence play important roles in promoting autonomous motivation for healthy eating and exercise.

Alexithymia and binge eating: Maladaptive emotion regulation strategy or deficient interoception?

Alexithymia has been linked to various excessive behaviors as a likely risk factor, including binge eating. Such relationships are often attributed to deficient emotional self-regulation in alexithymia, ostensibly leading to the use of maladaptive, externalized behaviors as strategies for coping with distress. An alternative view is that alexithymia reflects a fundamental deficit of interoceptive awareness that, in the case of binge eating, would suggest that internal satiety cues are poorly recognized, promoting overconsumption. The present study assessed the relationship between alexithymia and binge eating in the context of these competing hypotheses. A large online sample of young adults (n = 532) completed validated measures of alexithymia, emotion regulation, interoception, binge eating, emotional eating motivation, and sensitivity to reward and punishment. Correlations were as expected except for interoception, which showed minimal association with alexithymia or binge eating. In a hierarchical regression controlling for age, gender, education level and student status as covariates, binge eating was predicted by emotional eating motivation, emotion regulation (a negative predictor), alexithymia, and reward sensitivity, with the final model explaining 53% of variance in binge eating. Bootstrapped path analyses controlling for all other variables indicated that the relationship between alexithymia and binge eating was mediated by deficient emotion regulation but not deficient interoception, and that the relationships of both alexithymia and emotion regulation with binge eating were mediated by emotional eating motivation. Results are consistent with the notion that the association of alexithymia with binge eating reflects deficient emotion regulation in alexithymia, which can lead to adoption of maladaptive, externalized behaviors such as binge eating for coping with distress.

Eating Behaviors and Diet Quality: A National Survey of Australian Young Adults

ObjectiveTo investigate associations between eating behavior constructs (social eating, perceived competence, habit automaticity, self-determined motivation) and diet quality among young adults. DesignCross-sectional analysis. ParticipantsYoung adults (n = 1,005; mean age, 21.7 ± 2.0 years; 85% female) enrolled in the Advice, Ideas, and Motivation for My Eating (Aim4Me) study. Main outcome measuresFour eating behavior measures collected via online surveys: Social Eating Scale, Perceived Competence in Healthy Eating Scale, Self-Report Behavioral Automaticity Index, and Regulation of Eating Behaviors scales. Diet quality was assessed using the Australian Recommended Food Score (ARFS) and percentage energy from energy-dense, nutrient-poor (EDNP) foods. AnalysisMultivariate linear regression investigating associations between eating behavior measures (independent variables) and ARFS and EDNP foods (dependent variables), adjusting for sociodemographic and lifestyle confounders. ResultsGreater perceived competence in healthy eating and behavioral automaticity for consuming healthy foods, limiting EDNP food intake, and higher intrinsic motivation, integrated regulation, and identified regulation of eating behaviors were associated with higher ARFS and lower percentage energy EDNP foods (P < 0.001). Greater self-reported social influence on eating behaviors was associated with higher ARFS (P = 0.01). Higher amotivation was associated with greater % energy from EDNP foods (P < 0.001). Conclusions and ImplicationsPerceived competence, habit automaticity, and self-determined motivation are determinants of diet quality in young adults. These findings support the development of interventions that promote healthy eating habits by focusing on eating behavior constructs and evaluating their use in improving diet quality.

Measurement and Correlates of Food Selection Motivations in a United States Sample.

Background: In this study, we explored the factors that motivate food choice, and evaluated the psychometric properties and demographic correlates of the Eating Motivation (EATMOT) questionnaire in adults in the United States (US). Methods: This cross-sectional survey involved 905 adults in 6 sites across the US. The EATMOT questionnaire measures participants' self-reported motivations for food selection, demographic, and anthropometric data. Analyses included exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses, correlations, Welch's t-tests, and logistic regressions. Results: We established a 3-factor model (health-related, emotional, and environmental/political motivations) as the best fit to the data (CFI = .983, RMSEA = .049, SRMR = .054). Gender differences were found within the 3 factors, as well as in the intercorrelations between factors. Higher levels of health-related motivations (B = .10, SE = .04, OR = 1.11 (95% CI: 1.03, 1.19), p = .006) were associated with increased reports of weight loss dieting, whereas higher levels of environmental/political motivations (B = -.09, SE = .04, OR = 0.91, p = .02) were associated with fewer reports of weight-loss dieting. Conclusion: An abbreviated version of the EATMOT scale is appropriate for use in a US sample and identifies 3 categories of factors that impact dietary choices. These factors may be important in building interventions to improve diets.