Easy Sentences Research Articles

Complexity, frequency, and acceptability

It is sometimes argued that (certain types of) lexical frequency and constructional frequency determine how easy sentences are to process and hence, how acceptable speakers find them. Others have argued that grammatical principles interact with and often override such effects. Here, we present the results from a survey on Danish with more than 200 participants. We asked people to provide acceptability ratings of a number of sentences with varying levels of complexity, with and without extraction, including complement clauses, relative clauses, parasitic gaps, and ungrammatical sentences. We predicted structural complexity and acceptability to be negatively correlated (the more complex, the less acceptable). The results show that construction frequency and acceptability are correlated, but that zero and near-zero frequencies do not predict acceptability. However, there is indeed an even stronger inverse correlation between acceptability and structural complexity, defined as a function of independently motivated factors of syntactic structure and processing, including embedding, adjunction, extraction, and distance between filler and gap. Lexical frequency also affects acceptability, but the effects are small, and, crucially, there is no evidence in our data that ungrammatical sentences are affected by such frequency effects. Furthermore, the acceptability patterns seem to be fairly stable across participants. The results show a pattern that is consistent with an approach based on grammatical principles and processing constraints, rather than based on stochastic principles alone.

Facilitating EFL Students’ Learning Listening Subject through English Songs: The Audio-Lingual Method Perspectives

Listening skill is considered to be a challenging activity for English as a Foreign Language (EFL) learners in the context of English language learning. The present article aims at discussing the utilization of English songs as one of the learning sources for learning listening skills for EFL learners from the perspective of the Audio-Lingual Method (ALM). A qualitative descriptive research design was applied to scrutinize how English songs benefit for EFL learners to facilitate their listening subject. The data were obtained from previous related research findings and documentation studies. Furthermore, it discusses the relationship between song and listening, song as media to facilitate listening skills, the reasons for why using the songs as the learning media, the implication of using the songs to improve listening skills, and the benefits of using English song as a learning media. Review literature shows that the utilization of English songs may improve students’ listening skills and pronunciation over time. The ALM may assist learners in systematically learning the language by playing audio files. Students can comprehend brief and easy sentences when music is played in the background. English songs may assist learners in improving their listening skills and can be used for a variety of learning objectives. From the perspective of the ALM, English songs allow students to better understand the language being taught because it needs a high level of concentration as purposed by the ALM teaching and learning characteristics. In conclusion, from the perspective of ALM, English songs may bring positive contribution to the development of EFL students’ listening skills for some reasons.

Col.Muhammad Khan’s Comic Writing With Reference to Basalamat Ravi

Colonel Muhmmad Khan is one of the greatest humor writer of the Pakistan Millitary humorists. Along the military he has also a valuable place among the other literary movements. He wrote different books on humor, and from them “BaslamatRawi”, is consisting of 335 pages. Basically this book is a “Travelogue” because of Colonel Muhammad Khan travelled across the country many times. He has a very close and keen abservations of the people of the other countries, he also knows their traditions, customs, and systems. So, he urges all this in his books in a very beautifly style of humor. His humor is full of joy, pleasure and sweetness. He uses short, simple and easy sentences in his writing. He is very different kind of humor writings. He is a master-piece of humorists writer. He has also a fun of writing according to the situation. He avoides the artificial writings, focuses on the originality and purity. In his humor, he uses other languages along with Urdu, like as English, Parsian, Arabic etc. So, he fulfilled a strong tradition of humor writings in the field ofUrdu humor.

Teaching Arabic By The Method Of Almana In The Dialogue An Applied Study

The method of almana (translated as “prevent”) is a method of dialogue based on presenting the evidence and arguments and knowing the reasons behind the authenticity or faultiness of the conversation. The objective of the research is the method of almana of the primer Arabic literature, that is, the Quran. The research methodologies relied upon in conducting the present study are analytical and inductive methods, which help to collect the examples of almana from the Quran, classify them, and identify the associations of arguments with each other and the implications. The results of the research, which are the rationalist used the method of (almana) in discussions and dialogues, does not make it forbidden to look into this method and search for it in the texts of the Quran and the Sunnah, provided that it does not distort the texts. The method of almana is based on the evidence and arguments, whether with a definitive statement or with the idea that presents the solution to a problem. It came in easy sentences whose meanings are not hidden but for non-scholars. The Qur’anic method of almana is distinguished by using the most appropriate and the most required forms for the statement of the truth using brief sentences as it is very effective to achieve the objectives of the dialogue and its results are seen. Hence, the Qur’anic method of almana doesn’t contain digressions and numerous introductions that lengthen the conversation and miss the guidance and main objectives of the verses. The topics in which the method of almana was used varied, and the research showed that it was used in several issues related to creeds, such as the oneness of Allah, the prophethood of Muhammad, and the resurrection, in addition to ethical issues.

Implemantasi Peraturan Daerah Kabupaten Bulungan Nomor 06 Tahun 2009 Tentang Penataan Pedagang Kaki Lima

This study aims to determine the implementation of the Bulungan Regency Regional Regulation No. 6 of 2009 concerning the Arrangement of Street Vendors a case study of the Tanjung Selor city afternoon market). The data used in this study were obtained by observation based on field conditions as well as interview and documentation techniques. This research was conducted in the afternoon market area, this research is to explain the research data in the form of complete, systematic, and easy sentences to understand and interpret so that a conclusion can be drawn. Data analysis in this study was carried out with a qualitative approach. The data obtained will be analyzed qualitatively, namely by analyzing the data and then describing the phenomena that occur. From the results of this study, it is known that the implementation of the Bulungan Regency Regional Regulation Number 6 of 2009 concerning the Arrangement of Street Vendors regarding the arrangement of street vendors has not been implemented effectively.

Implemantasi Peraturan Daerah Kabupaten Bulungan Nomor 06 Tahun 2009 Tentang Penataan Pedagang Kaki Lima

This study aims to determine the implementation of the Bulungan Regency Regional Regulation No. 6 of 2009 concerning the Arrangement of Street Vendors a case study of the Tanjung Selor city afternoon market). The data used in this study were obtained by observation based on field conditions as well as interview and documentation techniques. This research was conducted in the afternoon market area, this research is to explain the research data in the form of complete, systematic, and easy sentences to understand and interpret so that a conclusion can be drawn. Data analysis in this study was carried out with a qualitative approach. The data obtained will be analyzed qualitatively, namely by analyzing the data and then describing the phenomena that occur. From the results of this study, it is known that the implementation of the Bulungan Regency Regional Regulation Number 6 of 2009 concerning the Arrangement of Street Vendors regarding the arrangement of street vendors has not been implemented effectively.

Experience of adult cochlear implantation at a tertiary hospital.

The prevalence of adult cochlear implant (CI) surgery is increasing. However, the relevant adult CI data in Taiwan are insufficient due to the relatively small number of adult implant patients. The two main factors hindering adult implantation are the high cost of the surgery itself and inadequate knowledge regarding the effectiveness of CI for hearing and suppression of tinnitus. Here, we present data regarding adult CI outcomes from a single tertiary hospital. A total of 116 consecutive adult CI recipients (≥18 years old) who completed at least 12 months of speech perception tests (words and sentences) between January 1999 and December 2020 were enrolled in this retrospective population-based cohort study. Thirty patients completed speech perception (words and sentences) testing as well as three questionnaires relating to quality of life, and 71 completed full tinnitus suppression studies. Subjects' pre- and post-CI questionnaires were evaluated to assess overall CI outcome. For auditory evaluation, the scores of easy sentences (ES), difficult sentences (DS), and phonetically balanced (PB) word recognition tests reached a plateau at 3 months post-CI (p = 0.005, 0.001, and 0.004, respectively) in most subjects. The post-CI scores of bodily pain, mental health, and social role functioning were significantly higher than corresponding pre-CI scores on the SF-36 Health Survey-Taiwan version (p = 0.036, 0.019, and 0.002, respectively). Furthermore, the post-CI scores of basic sound perception, speech production, and advanced sound perception were significantly higher than the corresponding pre-CI scores on the Nijmegen Cochlear Implant Questionnaire (p < 0.001, 0.013, and <0.001, respectively). Self-esteem was significantly correlated with the Categories of Auditory Performance scale and Speech Intelligibility Rating scale at 3, 6, and 9 months post-CI. CI improved tinnitus in approximately 65.1% of 71 adults. Based on the Tinnitus Handicap Inventory, 66.7% of patients were in grade 3-5 before surgery. However, after CI, only 34.4% of patients remained in THI grade 3-5. This study confirmed that CI can improve speech perception (words and sentences), physical health, mental health, social interaction, and self-esteem in adult patients with profound hearing loss. CI also significantly alleviated tinnitus. The outcomes of ES, DS, and PB tests at 3 months post-CI were non-inferior to other longer post-CI periods and could be utilized as references for recovery and evaluation of prognosis.

Studying the Parent-adolescent Interaction Experiences in a Taiwanese-Indonesian Transnational Marriage Family: A Case Study

&lt;p&gt;東南亞跨國婚姻家庭的親子教養一直是學界與實務服務的焦點，隨著子女進入青春期，這些家庭的親子 互動更需被多加探討。本文探究東南亞跨國婚姻家庭中父母與國中生子女之親子互動經驗，採個案研究 法，並以一個臺印跨國婚姻家庭為例。研究結果首先呈現子女步入青春期後的教養轉變、「父主經濟、 母主照顧」的親職分工，以及隨子女接受學校教育，新住民母親與青少年子女的中文能力落差影響母親 之親職權能。論及共親職經驗，可見新住民母親雖作為主要教養者，但為能促進臺籍父親與子女互動， 加上父權意識型態與先生是家中經濟來源者的影響，母親會積極把先生拉進教養同盟，並在重要教養決 策事件傾向「以夫為尊」。最後在親子互動的跨文化經驗中，當新住民母親擬教授子女印尼語時曾受到 隱微壓抑，然隨著相關契機出現，母親的母國文化能逐漸具現在親子互動上。基於上述，本文發現在形 成共親職共識、雙親積極行動與相互配合及家庭成員善用跨文化的相近性並接納差異性等條件支持下， 東南亞跨國婚姻家庭可形成正向動力系統，助益親子互動;另，受性別文化、家計維持角色及在地教育 體制優勢等影響，新住民母親雖是主要教養者，然臺籍父親是教養決策者與生涯諮詢者，此在子女步入 青春期後更為明顯。本文最後依研究結果對諮商實務與未來研究提出建議。&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;The educational and upbringing experiences of transnational marriages between Taiwan and Southeast Asian countries have always been the focus of academics and helping professions in Taiwan. As children grow up to adolescence, the parent-adolescent interaction of these families is a topic that needs to be discussed. The purpose of this study was to explore parent-adolescent interaction experiences in a Southeast Asian transnational marriage family in Taiwan, including upbringing, coparenting and cross-cultural experiences. This study selected one Taiwanese-Indonesian transnational marriage family as a case, and semi-structured interviews were conducted individually with all family members, including parents and adolescents. The results are as followed: (1) Upbringing experiences: Parents had gradually changed their upbringing strategies when children grew up to adolescence-from strict disciplines to self-management. The division of parenting work &amp;quot;the father is responsible for family economy; the mother is in charge of care work&amp;quot; was the main upbringing strategy in the daily life or schoolwork. Also, as children grew up to adolescence and accepted school education, the discrepancy of Chinese speaking ability between Indonesian new resident mother and adolescents influenced their interactions. In other words, adolescents showed better Chinese speaking ability than Indonesian mother, and this difference in language proficiency not only overturned Indonesian mother’s upbringing role but also affected her parenting authority, especially when quarrels appeared between mother and adolescents. (2) Coparenting experiences: Gender division of housework &amp;quot;male leads outside; female leads inside&amp;quot; was the pattern of parenting practice in this family. Indonesian mother was the main executor in parenting, but in order to facilitate the interaction between Taiwanese father and adolescents, she used her strategies positively, pulling father into parenting alliance. Also, affected unconsciously by ideology of patriarchy and thought of &amp;quot;the father is responsible for family economy&amp;quot;,Indonesian mother intended to respect her husband in some crucial parenting decision-making, especially when it came to paying money. (3) Cross-cultural experiences: In this case, Indonesian mother had ethnic Chinese background, so all the family members felt few cross-cultural differences. But when Indonesian mother tried to teach some easy Indonesian words or sentences for her daughter and son at their very young age, it still showed parenting authority discrepancies between Taiwanese father and Indonesian mother-that was, Indonesian mother’s native language was not accepted by Taiwanese father at the beginning. However, as pivotal opportunities appeared, like new resident culture courses in school, Indonesian language learning chance brought by Indonesian mother’s relatives and adolescents going back to Indonesia with mother to learn Indonesian cultures through practice, Indonesian mother’s native culture began to be taught in parent-adolescent interactions. Based on study results, two findings are as followed: (1) With related conditions such as co-parenting consensus, positive acts and cooperation of parents, good use of cross-cultural similarities, and acceptance of differences, it could form positive dynamic system and benefit parent-adolescent interaction in Southeast Asian transnational marriage families. (2) Due to the influence of gender culture and because Taiwanese father was the role of household maintenance and was familiar with local educational system, the phenomenon that new resident mother spent more time in parenting but Taiwanese father was the main decision maker and the career consultant became more obvious as children grew up to adolescence. Suggestions for counseling practices are also elaborated according to this study: (1) Counselors are suggested to give attention to how those different systems and factors bring positive influences to Taiwanese-Indonesian transnational marriage families. (2) Counselors are suggested to be sensitive to hidden power issues in Taiwanese-Indonesian transnational marriage families. (3) Related information and knowledge about Southeast Asian transnational marriage families are necessary for counselors. Also, counselors are suggested to inspect their own values and take good use of family system perspectives when conceptualizing clients or families.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/p&gt;

The Unfolding of Cognitive Effort During Sentence Processing: Pupillometric Evidence From People With and Without Aphasia.

Arousal and cognitive effort are relevant yet often overlooked components of attention during language processing. Pupillometry can be used to provide a psychophysiological index of arousal and cognitive effort. Given that much is unknown regarding the relationship between cognition and language deficits seen in people with aphasia (PWA), pupillometry may be uniquely suited to explore those relationships. The purpose of this study was to examine arousal and the time course of the allocation of cognitive effort related to sentence processing in people with and without aphasia. Nineteen PWA and age- and education-matched control participants listened to relatively easy (subject-relative) and relatively difficult (object-relative) sentences and were required to answer occasional comprehension questions. Tonic and phasic pupillary responses were used to index arousal and the unfolding of cognitive effort, respectively, while sentences were processed. Group differences in tonic and phasic responses were examined. Group differences were observed for both tonic and phasic responses. PWA exhibited greater overall arousal throughout the task compared with controls, as evidenced by larger tonic pupil responses. Controls exhibited more effort (greater phasic responses) for difficult compared with easy sentences; PWA did not. Group differences in phasic responses were apparent during end-of-sentence and postsentence time windows. Results indicate that the attentional state of PWA in this study was not consistently supportive of adequate task engagement. PWA in our sample may have relatively limited attentional capacity or may have challenges with allocating existing capacity in ways that support adequate task engagement and performance. This work adds to the body of evidence supporting the validity of pupillometric tasks for the study of aphasia and contributes to a better understanding of the nature of language deficits in aphasia. Supplemental Material https://doi.org/10.23641/asha.16959376.

Listening to a Dysphonic Speaker in Noise May Impede Children's Spoken Language Processing in a Realistic Classroom Setting.

Purpose The aim of this study was to investigate children's processing of dysphonic speech in a realistic classroom setting, under the influence of added classroom noise. Method Typically developing 6-year-old primary school children performed two listening tasks in their regular classrooms: a phoneme discrimination task to assess speech perception and a sentence-picture matching task to assess listening comprehension. Speech stimuli were played back in either a typical or an impaired voice quality. Children performed the tasks in the presence of induced classroom noise at signal-to-noise ratios between +2 and +9 dB. Results Children's performance in the phoneme discrimination task decreased significantly when the speaker's voice was impaired. The effect of voice quality on sentence-picture matching depended on task demands: Easy sentences were processed more accurately in the impaired-voice condition than in the typical-voice condition. Signal-to-noise ratio effects are discussed in light of methodological constraints. Conclusions Listening to a dysphonic teacher in a noisy classroom may impede children's perception of speech, particularly when phonological discrimination is needed to disambiguate the speech input. Future research regarding the interaction of voice quality and task demands is necessary.

Expecting Questions Modulates Cognitive Effort in a Syntactic Processing Task: Evidence From Pupillometry.

Purpose Pupillary responses captured via pupillometry (measurement of pupillary dilation and constriction during the performance of a cognitive task) are psychophysiological indicators of cognitive effort, attention, arousal, and resource engagement. Pupillometry may be a promising tool for enhancing our understanding of the relationship between cognition and language in people with and without aphasia. Interpretation of pupillary responses is complex. This study was designed as a stepping-stone for future pupillometric studies involving people with aphasia. Asking comprehension questions is common in language processing research involving people with and without aphasia. However, the influence of comprehension questions on pupillometric indices of task engagement (tonic responses) and cognitive effort (task-evoked responses of the pupil [TERPs]) is unknown. We tested whether asking comprehension questions influenced pupillometric results of adults without aphasia during a syntactic processing task. Method Forty adults without aphasia listened to easy (canonical) and difficult (noncanonical) sentences in two conditions: one that contained an explicit comprehension task (question condition) and one that did not (no-question condition). The influence of condition and canonicity on pupillary responses was examined. Results The influence of canonicity was only significant in the question condition: TERPs for difficult sentences were larger than TERPs for easy sentences. Tonic responses did not differ between conditions. Conclusions Although participants had similar levels of attentiveness in both conditions, increases in indices of cognitive effort during syntactic processing were significant only when participants expected comprehension questions. Results contribute to a body of evidence indicating the importance of task design and careful linguistic stimulus control when using pupillometry to study language processing. Supplemental Material https://doi.org/10.23641/asha.13480368.

Using Pupillometry to Investigate Sentence Comprehension in Children With and Without Specific Language Impairment.

In this study pupillometry was used to investigate the allocation of attentional resources associated with sentence comprehension in children with and without specific language impairment (SLI). Eighteen children with SLI (age: M = 6.4 years) and 18 typically developing (TD) children (age: M = 6.3 years) participated in the study. A sentence comprehension task was presented that comprised items designated as easy or hard. Easy sentences contained 4 or 5 words, and hard sentences contained 6 or 7 words. For the TD group, pupil size was significantly larger when comprehending hard sentences compared with easy sentences. There was no effect of sentence difficulty on pupil size in the SLI group. Comparisons between groups revealed pupil sizes for the SLI group were significantly larger than those for the TD group for easy sentences. There were no group differences for the hard sentences. In TD children, pupillometry was sensitive to the attentional demands associated with sentence comprehension. Between-subjects comparisons indicated that the TD group allocated less attention than did the children with SLI for the easy sentences but not for the hard sentences. This study provides evidence of attentional differences between children with SLI and TD children under conditions of low processing demands.

Receptive and Expressive Abilities of 2 - 3 Years - Olds to Easy Sentences by the Animation of Picture Stimuli

Receptive and Expressive Abilities of 2 - 3 Years - Olds to Easy Sentences by the Animation of Picture Stimuli

Kolay Cumleler w Wypisach tureckich Hadży Seraji Szapszała

The teaching of the Turkish language in Poland posed many problems for teachers as there were no appropriate materials which could be used during lessons. Seraya Shapshal’s “Wypisy tureckie” (“Turkish Chrestomathy”) was the first comprehensive textbook that helped students learn Turkish. “Wypisy” consists of texts dealing with a variety of topics as well as a Turkish–Polish dictionary. This book is a good example of the difficulties a teacher or writer faces when preparing suitable materials. “Wypisy” was written in 1931–1932 and published in Vilnius; it is 140 pages in length, 83 pages of which are given over to the Turkish–Polish dictionary. The entire book was handwritten, which is probably the main reason why it contains many typos, i.e. the Turkish characters are written in the wrong way. In this paper only the first chapter is analysed, namely “Kolay Cumleler” (“Easy sentences”). The analysis focuses on grammatical (phonology, morphology, syntax) and lexical issues presented to the students in the initial phase of their Turkish language instruction.

Executive control is shared between sentence processing and digit maintenance: Evidence from a strictly timed dual-task paradigm

We investigated whether the comprehension of syntactically difficult sentences taxes the executive control component of working memory more than the comprehension of their easier counterparts. To that end, we tested the effect of sharing executive control between sentence comprehension and the maintenance of a digit load in two dual-task experiments with strictly controlled timing (Barrouillet, Bernardin, & Camos, 2004). Recall was worse after participants had processed one (Experiment 2) or two (Experiment 1) difficult sentences than after they had processed one or two easy sentences, respectively. This finding suggests that sentence processing and the maintenance of a digit load share executive control. Processing syntactically difficult sentences seems to occupy executive control for a longer time than processing their easy counterparts, thereby blocking refreshments of the memory traces of the digits so that these traces decay more and recall is worse. There was no effect of the size of the digit load on sentence-processing performance (Experiment 2), suggesting that sentence processing completely occupied executive control until processing was complete.

Sentences and non-content words: Missing ingredients in reading instruction

Sentences and Beginning Texts It may seem strange to say that sentences have been given in sufficient attention in reading instruction. As in spoken language, this unit of our verbal system is a powerful and ever-present factor in written language. Even texts for the youngest readers are unques tionably written in sentence form. The sentences are also graded in terms of difficulty so that short, seemingly easy sentences are pre

Effects of Vocabulary, Syntax, and Sentence Length on Auditory Comprehension in Aphasic Patients

Three groups of adult aphasics (Broca’s, Wernicke’s and amnesic) and a group of normal control subjects were compared on a test of auditory comprehension for sentences. The test sentences constructed varied systematically in the parameters of length, vocabullary difficulty, and syntactic complexity. The pattern of aphasics’ responses indicated that they differed from the normal controls in quantitative performance, but not in qualitative aspects. The aphasic subgroups varied in comprehension ability, with the Wernicke's patients performing the poorest. Syntactic complexity proved to be the most difficult parameter for all subjects. Comprehension of sentences of increased difficulty was significantly poorer than comprehension of easy sentences. Clinical applications of the test were discussed.