Eastern West Virginia Research Articles

FORTY-YEARS OF FIELD NOTES THE CHEAT MOUNTAIN SALAMANDER (PLETHODON NETTINGI)

In the following pages, I describe 40 years of field observations on the Cheat Mountain Salamander (Plethodon nettingi), a federally threatened species. This is not a research paper in that I do not attempt to analyze data, but rather it is a means to share information I have collected during my time in the field with this species. Cheat Mountain Salamanders are found in just five counties in the high elevations of the Allegheny Mountains in eastern West Virginia. I have searched over 1,300 sites in these five counties and determined that its range extends from Blackwater River Canyon (Tucker County) in the north to Thorny Flat (Pocahontas County) in the south, a linear distance of about 92 km. Within this range, I observed over 2,000 Cheat Mountain Salamanders in 81 populations. Data collected in these 81 populations include habitat characteristics, elevational ranges, mountain aspects, cover objects, food items, sympatric species, syntopic events, phenology, reproduction, conservation issues, and status of populations. It is my hope that information presented herein will be useful to biologists who will be studying this species in future years.

Over the hills and far away: Middle to Late Woodland archaeology and toolstone conveyance at Hyre Mound (46RD1), West Virginia

The archaeology of the eastern West Virginia uplands remains significantly understudied compared to other areas of the Appalachian Plateau. Bettye Broyles’ excavations at the Hyre Mound site (46RD1) in 1963 recovered a variety of artifacts within and directly adjacent to a burial mound but the excavations remain largely unpublished. We provide a report of Broyles’ excavations, new radiocarbon dates, and an analysis of the lithic raw material frequencies at the site. Material culture and ceremonial practices suggest the initial mound construction dates to the Middle Woodland period. Radiocarbon dating of cultural features confirms that people also used the locality during the Late Woodland period. Lithic raw material frequencies indicate a preference for non-local, Hillsdale chert found ∼100 km from the site throughout both time periods. The directionality of toolstone conveyance supports existing models that emphasize the quality and location of raw material sources and the orientation of the region’s physiography.

The MAGIC Experiment: A Combined Seismic and Magnetotelluric Deployment to Investigate the Structure, Dynamics, and Evolution of the Central Appalachians

Abstract The eastern margin of North America has undergone multiple episodes of orogenesis and rifting, yielding the surface geology and topography visible today. It is poorly known how the crust and mantle lithosphere have responded to these tectonic forces, and how geologic units preserved at the surface related to deeper structures. The eastern North American margin has undergone significant postrift evolution since the breakup of Pangea, as evidenced by the presence of young (Eocene) volcanic rocks in western Virginia and eastern West Virginia and by the apparently recent rejuvenation of Appalachian topography. The drivers of this postrift evolution, and the precise mechanisms through which relatively recent processes have modified the structure of the margin, remain poorly understood. The Mid-Atlantic Geophysical Integrative Collaboration (MAGIC) experiment, part of the EarthScope USArray Flexible Array, consisted of collocated, dense, linear arrays of broadband seismic and magnetotelluric (MT) stations (25–28 instruments of each type) across the central Appalachian Mountains, through the U.S. states of Virginia, West Virginia, and Ohio. The goals of the MAGIC deployment were to characterize the seismic and electrical conductivity structure of the crust and upper mantle beneath the central Appalachians using natural-source seismic and MT imaging methods. The MAGIC stations operated between 2013 and 2016, and the data are publicly available via the Incorporated Research Institutions for Seismology Data Management Center.

Recent Records and Range Expansion of Erethizon dorsatum (North American Porcupine) in Virginia

Although Erethizon dorsatum (North American Porcupine, hereafter Porcupine), occurred in Virginia during the Pleistocene and into the 1700s, this species was probably extirpated from the state by the mid-1800s. Here we document recent evidence of Porcupines in Virginia from verified photographs submitted to the Virginia Department of Game and Inland Fisheries and voucher specimens deposited into the Mammal Collection of the Virginia Museum of Natural History. These recently collected and observed Porcupines are likely dispersers from expanding Porcupine populations in western Maryland and eastern West Virginia. This report includes evidence of reproduction in Virginia populations (or nearby populations in West Virginia) and provides a foundation for future investigations into the distribution and abundance of the Porcupine in Virginia.

Vulnerability of high-elevation endemic salamanders to climate change: A case study with the Cow Knob Salamander (Plethodon punctatus)

Rapid contemporary climate change is a potential threat to long-term persistence of montane wildlife species because they often have narrow thermal tolerances and have limited potential to shift their distributions. The Appalachian Mountain region in the eastern United States is a global biodiversity hotspot for woodland salamanders (genus Plethodon), many of which are high-elevation endemic species. Robust assessments of the vulnerability of high-elevation endemic salamanders to climate change, including delineation of future potential climate refugia, are needed to guide climate change adaptations strategies. The Cow Knob Salamander (Plethodon punctatus) is a species of conservation concern found at high elevations in the Valley and Ridge Province of western Virginia and eastern West Virginia. We used habitat suitability models to examine relationships between landscape characteristics, climate variables, and P. punctatus occurrence, and estimated effects of future climate scenarios on the species’ climatic niche. We found that elevation, slope, aspect, and hillshade were influential landscape predictors of species occurrence, and that mean annual temperature was the most influential climate variable. Future climate projections indicated this species will likely lose most of its climatic niche by mid-century, and that amount of suitable habitat will continue to decline through 2100. We identified several pockets of habitat that may represent climate change refugia for P. punctatus due to cooler microclimates from greater hillshade and aspects that receive less direct solar radiation; however, we found these refugia exist in small, isolated habitat patches. Our study provides quantitative estimates that support the general concern that high-elevation endemic salamanders are particularly vulnerable to climate change. Our models can be used by natural resource managers to guide current P. punctatus monitoring and habitat conservation efforts, as well as to identify focal areas that will likely serve as refugia for the species as the climate continues to change over this century.

Development and field testing of experimental seed mixtures for high elevation roadside locations in West Virginia

Non-native grass mixtures are often used to quickly establish ground cover on highway construction sites. Because soil is often mixed with parent material, reclamation is difficult in many of these locations. The inclusion of native seeds at two roadside locations in eastern West Virginia was evaluated in this study. The field sites had among the harshest climate conditions of the state, and the intent was to evaluate the establishment of varying seed mixtures at low/moderate and high elevations. Four experimental seed mixtures (mowable areas, cool season, warm season, and high elevation) were compared to two currently used seed mixtures for erosion control. Ground cover, biomass, compaction, and soil information were monitored over three growing seasons (2015–2017). Results show that the mowable area and cool season mixtures show promise at a wide range of elevations. While the warm season mixture did meet minimum ground cover (70%) at the low elevation location, the use will be limited due to slower time to establishment; however, the inclusion of the warm season mixture will meet the need of included native species in roadside reclamation. Experimental mixtures were resilient to periods of drought and high temperature throughout the study. The high elevation seed mixture did not perform better than the other experimental seed mixtures, so its use is not recommended for right-of-way locations in West Virginia. The cool season and mowable area mixtures likely meet this need.

Microhabitat Selection of the Virginia Northern Flying Squirrel (Glaucomys sabrinus fuscusMiller) in the Central Appalachians

Glaucomys sabrinus fuscus (Virginia Northern Flying Squirrel; VNFS) is a rare Sciurid that occurrs in the Allegheny Mountains of eastern West Virginia and northwest Virginia. Previous work on this subspecies has confirmed close associations with Picea rubens (Red Spruce) at the landscape and stand levels in the region. However, ongoing Red Spruce restoration actions using canopy-gap creation to release single or small groups of trees requires a better understanding of within-stand habitat selection of VNFS to assess potential short- and medium-term impacts. To address these questions, we conducted a microhabitat study using radio-collared squirrels in montane conifer and mixed conifer—hardwood stands. We used points obtained from telemetry surveys and randomly generated points within each squirrel's home range to compare microhabitat variables for 13 individuals. We found that VNFS preferentially selected plots with conifer-dominant overstories and deep organic-soil horizons. VNFS avoided plots with dense Red Spruce regeneration in the understory in stands with hardwood-dominated overstories—the types of areas targeted for Red Spruce restoration. We also opportunistically searched for hypogeal fungi at telemetry points and found 3 species of Elaphomyces during our surveys. Our results indicate that microhabitat selection is associated with Red Spruce-dominant forests. Efforts to restore Red Spruce where hardwoods dominate in the central Appalachians may improve the connectivity and extent of habitat of VNFS.

Wood Turtle Home Range and Habitat Use in the Central Appalachians

Abstract Conservation of wood turtles (Glyptemys insculpta) requires improved ecological knowledge near the southern extent of their geographic range. Our objectives were to determine home range sizes and structural habitat characteristics of wood turtles near the southern border of their geographic range in eastern West Virginia. We captured 284 wood turtles (137 males, 88 females, and 59 juveniles) along a 13.7-km reach of river from spring 2009 to summer 2011. Home ranges (95% minimum convex polygons) varied from 0.62 to 36.97 ha; male home ranges tended to be elongated along the river, whereas female and juvenile home ranges encompassed a greater proportion of terrestrial habitat. Low bare ground and rock cover and high vegetative vertical density were structural characteristics associated with the turtles' habitat compared with random plots. Our study provides vital data about home range, movements, and habitat use of wood turtles along the southern border of their range. These data will assist in pl...

The Seeding Your Future Initiative: STEM outreach for grades 5-12.

The Seeding Your Future Initiative started in Fall 2014 with the goal of providing STEM outreach in theEastern Panhandle of WV and the surrounding tri-state area. The Initiative began with the Seeding Your Future Conference, which will be in its third year next October. This conference targets middle school age girls, with the goal of the girls gaining or maintaining an appreciation for STEM fields and their abilities within them. The conference features a plenary by a woman in STEM, a speed-dating style panel, and a series of ~1hr hands-on STEM workshops. In September 2015, the Seeding Your Future Workshop Series began for high school students. Workshop Series events are held monthly during the academic year and feature a two-hour hands-on STEM activity. This talk will include details of the Seeding Your Future Initiative, discuss the novel aspects of it, and showcase data from the past few years highlighting the program’s successes. All program activities are free of charge thanks to generous funding from Women Investing in Shepherd (WISH), NASA West Virginia Space Grant Consortium, Eastern West Virginia Community Foundation, American Association of University Women (AAUW), and Shepherd University.

An incised valley fill and lowstand wedges in the Upper Devonian Foreknobs Formation, central Appalachian Basin: Implications for Famennian glacioeustasy

The supposition that the Late Devonian Gondwanan glaciation should be recorded in more temperate regions by black shales, incised valleys, and lowstand wedges is tested with reference to the Foreknobs Formation (late Frasnian to early Famennian) of the central Appalachian Basin (USA). The upper (early Famennian) portion of the Foreknobs Formation in a proximal strike belt in eastern West Virginia contains an erosionally based, coarse, conglomeratic, incised valley fill (IVF) that is underlain and overlain by strata deposited in a relatively deep-marine, ramp setting. A signal of sea-level drawdown is in the form of conglomeratic, hummocky cross-stratified (HCS) storm event beds underlying the IVF, suggesting the proximity of a gravely fluvial point source up-paleoslope. Within a more distal outcrop 66km (41miles) to the west, and at about the same stratigraphic horizon, the Foreknobs Formation exhibits a relatively thin succession of black shale that was deposited as sea-level fell, resulting in the concentration of nutrients that caused anoxic conditions. Overlying the black shale are several erosionally based lowstand wedge deposits comprised of cyclic conglomeratic, braided-stream facies which fine-upward to dark gray shales deposited within estuarine environments. The genetically related proximal IVF and the lowermost distal lowstand wedge formed during a major 3rd-order eustatic sea-level fall (35–45m) consistent with published 3rd-order sea-level curves. Lowering of sea-level (base-level) resulted in steeper stream gradients which caused incision and transportation of gravel from the wedge-top depozone of the foreland basin down to the basinward-migrated shoreline. Inferred depositional environments of the distal lowstand wedge are consistent with interpretations from regional subsurface mapping west of the most distal outcrop belt. From inferred magnitudes of sea-level falls and the physics of ice-sheets, calculations of areal extents of ice over Gondwana suggest that an early Famennian inferred sea-level fall of 35–45m translates to an area of ice which is only half of the reported area of late Famennian ice. The data are consistent with step-wise increases in magnitude of sea-level fluctuations during deposition of the Upper Devonian Foreknobs Formation within a period of time transitional between Middle Devonian greenhouse conditions and the later icehouse conditions of the Late Paleozoic.

Report of First Specimens ofPekania pennanti(Fisher) from Virginia

Abstract Pekania pennanti (Fisher) is believed to have occurred in portions of western Virginia prior to the late 1800s. However, except for fossil remains, no specimen or evidence of this species from Virginia has ever been reported in a museum collection. Here we document recent evidence of Fishers in Virginia from verified photographic records submitted to the Virginia Department of Game and Inland Fisheries and voucher specimens deposited into the Mammal Collection of the Virginia Museum of Natural History. These recently collected and observed Fishers in Virginia are likely dispersers from expanding Fisher populations in western Maryland and eastern West Virginia. This report provides the foundation for future investigations into the distribution and abundance of this species in Virginia.

Geologic and hydrologic aspects of brine disposal intervals in the Appalachian Basin

Many different rock intervals are used for brine disposal injection in the Appalachian Basin. The study area was defined as eastern Kentucky, Ohio, Pennsylvania, and West Virginia. Brine injection in the study area has increased from approximately 6–7 million barrels (bbl) per year in the early 2000s to 17.6 million bbl in 2012, mostly due to shale gas activity. A review of geologic properties and subsurface distribution of rock formations used for injection is useful to understand brine disposal operations in the region. Operational data on injection rates and pressures were compiled for 2008–2012 for more than 300 class II brine disposal wells. Several class II brine disposal wells were monitored with continuous wellhead pressure loggers to estimate reservoir properties and understand injection operations. Project results provide a catalog of injection rates for the various formations, which range from hundreds to more than 100,000 bbl per month per well. Hydrologic analysis of depleted hydrocarbon reservoirs and deep saline formations in the study area indicates that there is a large capacity for brine disposal, but the characteristics of the rock formations may limit injection rates. Based on hydrocarbon production and brine injection volumes from 2008 to 2012, approximately 9984 bbl of brine were routed to class II brine disposal wells per billion cubic feet gas production, which suggests ultimate demand of up to 706–2290 million bbl brine disposal related to unconventional Marcellus and Utica plays. Understanding the geology and operational history of the injection zones is critical to support safe, reliable, and environmentally responsible brine disposal in the region.

River mainstem thermal regimes influence population structuring within an appalachian brook trout population

Brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis) often exist as highly differentiated populations, even at small spatial scales, due either to natural or anthropogenic sources of isolation and low rates of dispersal. In this study, we used molecular approaches to describe the unique population structure of brook trout inhabiting the Shavers Fork watershed, located in eastern West Virginia, and contrast it to nearby populations in tributaries of the upper Greenbrier River and North Fork South Branch Potomac Rivers. Bayesian and maximum likelihood clustering methods identified minimal population structuring among 14 collections of brook trout from throughout the mainstem and tributaries of Shavers Fork, highlighting the role of the cold-water mainstem for connectivity and high rates of effective migration among tributaries. In contrast, the Potomac and Greenbrier River collections displayed distinct levels of population differentiation among tributaries, presumably resulting from tributary isolation by warm-water mainstems. Our results highlight the importance of protecting and restoring cold-water mainstem habitats as part of region-wide brook trout conservation efforts. In addition, our results from Shavers Fork provide a contrast to previous genetic studies that characterize Appalachian brook trout as fragmented isolates rather than well-mixed populations. Additional study is needed to determine whether the existence of brook trout as genetically similar populations among tributaries is truly unique and whether connectivity among brook trout populations can potentially be restored within other central Appalachian watersheds.

Biological characteristics of Monilinia fructicola isolates from stone fruits in eastern West Virginia

Monilinia fructicola, the causal agent of brown rot, was recovered from decayed stone fruits (peach, plum and nectarine) in 11 West Virginia orchards. There was significant variation among these isolates with respect to colony morphology, growth rate, sporulation level, sensitivity to fenbuconazole, vegetative compatibility and virulence. Species identification was confirmed using ITS sequences from the nuclear ribosomal RNA gene. The cultural phenotypes on potato dextrose agar (PDA) ranged from white to dark, melanized colonies. The growth rate of the isolates on PDA ranged from 0.3 to 3.2 mm day−1 at 4 °C, from 2.9 to 7.6 mm day−1 at 10 °C, and from 4.8 to 19 mm day−1 at 24 °C. There was a statistically significant relationship between the growth of the isolates on PDA and their aggressiveness on nectarines at 24 °C, especially at higher inoculum concentrations. Sporulation of 3-day-old cultures on peach agar at 24 °C varied from profuse to no sporulation, with some isolates sporulating only sparsely after 10 days. The EC50 for fenbuconazole ranged from 0.003 to 0.129 μg μL−1 and for two reference isolates was 0.020 and 0.016 μg μL−1. Only a few vegetative compatibility groups were identified among isolates within orchards, reflecting the lack of sexual recombination in this region.

Brook Trout Movement in Response to Temperature, Flow, and Thermal Refugia within a Complex Appalachian Riverscape

AbstractWe quantified movements of brook trout Salvelinus fontinalis and brown trout Salmo trutta in a complex riverscape characterized by a large, open‐canopy main stem and a small, closed‐canopy tributary in eastern West Virginia, USA. Our objectives were to quantify the overall rate of trout movement and relate movement behaviors to variation in streamflow, water temperature, and access to coldwater refugia. The study area experienced extremely high seasonal, yearly, and among‐stream variability in water temperature and flow. The relative mobility of brook trout within the upper Shavers Fork watershed varied significantly depending on whether individuals resided within the larger main stem or the smaller tributary. The movement rate of trout inhabiting the main stem during summer months (50 m/d) was an order of magnitude higher than that of tributary fish (2 m/d). Movement rates of main‐stem‐resident brook trout during summer were correlated with the maximum water temperature experienced by the fish and with the fish's initial distance from a known coldwater source. For main‐stem trout, use of microhabitats closer to cover was higher during extremely warm periods than during cooler periods; use of microhabitats closer to cover during warm periods was also greater for main‐stem trout than for tributary inhabitants. Main‐stem‐resident trout were never observed in water exceeding 19.5°C. Our study provides some of the first data on brook trout movements in a large Appalachian river system and underscores the importance of managing trout fisheries in a riverscape context. Brook trout conservation in this region will depend on restoration and protection of coldwater refugia in larger river main stems as well as removal of barriers to trout movement near tributary and main‐stem confluences.

The effects of riparian forest disturbance on stream temperature, sedimentation, and morphology

Forested headwater streams rely on their riparian areas for temperature regulation, woody debris inputs, and sediment retention. These products and services may be altered by disturbances such as timber harvest, windthrow, or development. This study investigated the effects of riparian forest disturbance by removing trees using 50 and 90% basal area harvests and by directly felling some trees into eight streams in eastern West Virginia. On summer afternoons, water temperature increased in the 50 and 90% BAH treatments at average rates of 0.18 and 0.79°C/100 m, respectively. The 90% BAH treatments had the potential to disrupt fish and invertebrate communities via increased water temperature. New roads and log landings associated with the riparian logging had no detectable effect on sedimentation or turbidity. Large woody debris (LWD) additions increased habitat complexity but no net increase in pool area was observed. Greater morphological instability was observed within the LWD addition sections as pools were both created and destroyed at significantly higher rates. Experimentally manipulating small riparian patches may be an analog for small-scale natural and anthropogenic disturbances. These common events are assumed to alter streams, but there are few experimental studies quantifying their effects.

Preferential Flow in Pastures on Benchmark Soils in West Virginia

Abstract Preferential flow is a mechanistic description of irregular water movement in a soil profile where part of the soil matrix is bypassed during periods of infiltration and percolation. Although a common phenomenon, there is little research specific to West Virginia soils, particularly those under pasture management. To identify the active preferential flow pathways, FD&C blue no. 1 dye solution was applied in a ponding application to 24 pedons representing three different benchmark soil series common to pastures in eastern West Virginia. Sites were excavated 2 days after the dye application to reveal the flow paths. Digital images of the dye-stained soil profiles were taken to identify the active flow pathways and analyzed to determine if the movement of the dye appeared to be preferential. A paired t test was used to compare the stained areas of adjacent horizons within each plot to determine if the extent of stained soil between observed horizons was statistically different. Statistically different stained pixels percentages were identified in every research plot. Overall, the percentage of stained pixels was significantly different in 76% of the adjacent horizons, and irregular wetting fronts were identified in every research plot. Dye patterns indicated zones of both increasing and decreasing subsurface staining. Changes in staining patterns often occurred at or near observed horizon boundaries. This research supports the qualitative identification of preferential flow as the dominant means of water movement through the soil profile, which may have implications for the transport of surface applied nutrients or contaminants into deeper soil layers and/or groundwater.

The Subterranean Asellids of Maryland: Description of Caecidotea Nordeni, New Species, and New Records of C. Holsingeri and C. Franzi (Crustacea: Malacostraca: Isopoda)

Five species of subterranean asellid are known from Maryland: Caecidotea pricei, C. franzi, C. holsingeri, C. mausi and C. vandeli. Caecidotea nordeni, n. sp. is a subterranean species described from Washington Co., Maryland and assigned to the hobbsi Group. A new locality for C. franzi in Kentucky is presented. This species was previously known from two caves in Maryland and Pennsylvania. The newly discovered population represents a range extension of over 400 km. The male pleopod 2 morphology of specimens from a Maryland population of the subterranean asellid C. holsingeri is compared with populations from three caves in West Virginia. The range of C. holsingeri extends from eastern West Virginia and adjacent Virginia to Garrett Co., Maryland.

The Extirpation of Orconectes limosus (Spinycheek Crayfish) Populations in West Virginia

Abstract Introductions of nonnative crayfish species have resulted in the global decline of native crayfish populations, including those in North America. Historically, the North American range of Orconectes limosus (Spinycheek Crayfish) extended from Maine, southward into northern Virginia, including West Virginia's eastern panhandle. A 1988–1989 survey of the eastern panhandle of West Virginia resulted in the capture of only 14 O. limosus, but an abundance of the nonnative Orconectes virilis (Virile Crayfish). These data along with additional unpublished accounts of declines of O. limosus populations prompted our survey of eastern West Virginia. In 2005 and 2006, crayfishes were collected from streams within the West Virginia range of the O. limosus, including historic capture locations. Our collection of 600 individuals comprised crayfishes from 3 species: O. virilis, Orconectes obscurus (Allegheny Crayfish), and Cambarus bartonii bartonii (Common Crayfish). The nonnative O. virilis was present at 26 o...

Density-dependent individual growth and size dynamics of central Appalachian brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis)

Density-dependent aggression, emigration, mortality, and individual growth have been identified in wild lotic salmonid populations. However, most work is limited to fish in the genus Salmo , and few studies consider density dependency coupled with observations of energy acquisition. We attempt to quantify density-dependent growth, size, and energy acquisition for a population of brook trout ( Salvelinus fontinalis ) in Appalachia, where the species is food-limited and population densities are low. Brook trout populations were intensely monitored over the course of 2 years at several sites within a watershed in eastern West Virginia. Tagging provided specific growth estimates, and diet analyses allowed for estimation of energy acquisition relative to maintenance requirements for adult fish. Young-of-the-year (YOY) brook trout exhibited density-dependent size relationships, but the intensity of density dependency varied substantially among months, with progressively decreasing slopes. Adult individual growth and excess energy acquisition was density-dependent, but only during periods when temperatures were warm and energy intake was low. The strong influence of temporal variability in density dependence of YOY size, as well as adult fish size, individual growth, and energy acquisition, suggests that density dependency in Appalachian brook trout may be driven by periodic prey resource scarcity.