Eastern Hellas Research Articles

Patterns of martian glacial deformation: Implications for glacio-geology, internal structure, and regional climate

Viscous Flow Features (VFF) are widespread in the martian mid-latitudes and indicative of near-surface ice deposits. Their distribution and morphology hint at the regional history of ice deposition and ablation, as well as changes in surface temperature. Here we interrogate the deformation history of a type of VFF, a Lobate Debris Apron (LDA), located in the eastern Hellas region, from its surface morphology, discussing the implications it poses for its internal structure and regional climate variability. Our observations integrate data from the Colour and Stereo Surface Imaging System (CaSSIS), the SHAllow RADar (SHARAD), the Context Camera (CTX), the High Resolution Imaging Science Experiment (HiRISE), and the Mars Orbiter Laser Altimeter (MOLA). Morphological observations, spectral analysis of characteristic wavelengths, and ice deformation stability analysis place constraints on the dynamics and deformation history of the deposit. We discuss contrasting hypotheses for the origin of the different surface structures, including the possibility of gelifluction in addition to glacial creep. Our results provide a guide to interpret glacial deformation patterns in martian VFFs in the light of internal structure, regional climate history, and underlying topography.

Ice-rich landforms of the southern mid-latitudes of Mars: A case study in Nereidum Montes

Mapping of Viscous Flow Features (VFFs), a general grouping of ice-rich flow features that includes Lobate Debris Aprons (LDA), Concentric Crater Fill (CCF), Lineated Valley Flow (LVF), small lobate flows (i.e., glacier-like flows, or GLFs), and arcuate ridges, in the southern hemisphere of Mars shows a dense concentration in Nereidum Montes, along the northern rim of Argyre basin. Further mapping within a subregion in northwest Nereidum Montes (45.3°–48.5° S, 307°–312° E) shows a large number of well-preserved VFFs and ice-rich mantling deposits. Processed SHARAD data across a VFF within the region indicates that it is composed of nearly pure water ice.Model ages obtained from crater counts and their associated size-frequency distributions (SFDs) on both ice-rich mantling deposits and small lobate VFFs suggest that the deposits stabilized several to tens of Ma ago in the Late Amazonian Epoch, and that small lobate VFFs likely formed due to the mobilization of mantling deposits. SFD for a larger VFF shows a model age of 100 s of Ma, consistent with ages for LDAs in eastern Hellas. Deposition of ice in Nereidum Montes that led to the formation of VFFs likely occurred during periods of high obliquity in the Late Amazonian.Our results show that VFFs have more complete and diverse preservation states in Nereidum Montes than similar features in other regions on Mars. This region contains uniquely well-preserved mantling deposits above arcuate ridges and beyond the margins of lobate VFFs and gully aprons. This key observation ties arcuate ridges to the flow of mantling deposits, part of a continuum model for mid-latitude ice-rich landforms.

Volcanic Structures Within Niger and Dao Valles, Mars, and Implications for Outflow Channel Evolution and Hellas Basin Rim Development

AbstractOutflow channel formation on the eastern Hellas rim region is traditionally thought to have been triggered by activity phases of the nearby volcanoes Hadriacus and Tyrrhenus Montes: As a result of volcanic heating subsurface volatiles were mobilized. It is, however, under debate, whether eastern Hellas volcanism was in fact more extensive, and if there were volcanic centers separate from the identified central volcanoes. This work describes previously unrecognized structures in the Niger‐Dao Valles outflow channel complex. We interpret them as volcanic edifices: cones, a shield, and a caldera. The structures provide evidence of an additional volcanic center within the valles and indicate volcanic activity both prior to and following the formation of the outflow events. They expand the extent, type, and duration of volcanic activity in the Circum‐Hellas Volcanic Province and provide new information on interaction between volcanism and fluvial activity.

Volcanic flows versus water- and ice-related outburst deposits in eastern Hellas: A comparison

Hellas Planitia is one of the major topographic sinks on Mars for the deposition of any kind of sediments. We report on our observations of sheet deposits in the eastern part of the basin that are apparently related to the Dao Vallis outflow channel. The deposits have lobate flow fronts and a thickness of a few decameters. Despite their generally smooth surface, some distinctive textures and patterns can be identified, such as longitudinal lineations, distributive channels, and polygons. We compared these deposits to other sheet deposits on Mars and tested three hypotheses of their origin: volcanic flows as well as water- and ice-related mass wastings. Despite some similarities to volcanic sheet flows on Mars, we found several morphological characteristics that are not known for sheet lava flows; for example conically arranged lineations and channel systems very similar to fluvial incisions. We also reject an ice-related formation similar to terrestrial rock-ice avalanches, as there is no sufficient relief energy to explain their extent and location. A water-related origin appears most consistent with our observations, and we favor an emplacement by fluvially-driven mass wasting processes, e.g., debris flows. Assuming a water-related origin, we calculated the amount of water that would be required to deposit such large sedimentary bodies for different flow types. Our calculations show a large range of possible water volumes, from 64 to 2,042 km³, depending on the specific flow mechanism. The close link to Dao Vallis makes these deposits a unique place to study the deposition of outflow channel sediments, as the deposits of other outflow channels on Mars, such as those around Chryse Planitia, are mostly buried by younger sediments and volcanic flows.

Mapping and dating based evolution studies of the Niger Vallis outflow channel, Mars

Niger Vallis is one of the four large outflow channel systems in the eastern Hellas rim region of Mars. Niger, as well as the other nearby valles, is assumed to have been carved by water and later covered by ice-rich deposits. Thus, it plays a significant role both in the fluvial and glacial evolution of the region. This work presents the photogeological mapping and crater count dating results of the Niger Vallis system achieved based on the images of the ConTeXt (CTX) and High Resolution Imaging Science Experiment (HiRISE) cameras of Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter (MRO). The results show that Niger Vallis formed in at least two stages. The southern branch of Niger Vallis originated from Ausonia Cavus, ∼3.7–3.9 Ga ago, whereas the northern branch formed from Peraea Cavus, ∼3.3–3.4 Ga ago. Both of the time scales correspond to the volcanic activity phases of the nearby highland volcanoes of Tyrrhenus and Hadriacus Montes. The fluvial activity of Niger Vallis was not, however, as intense as the activity of the other nearby outflow channels, and it seems to have weakened soon after the formation of the northern branch. The outflow channel was resurfaced again ∼0.9–1.5 Ga ago, probably by regional fluvial activity. After that, the floor of Niger Vallis was covered by lineated valley fills and corresponding ice-rich deposits, the formation of which ended ∼220–470 Ma ago, or not later than ∼110 Ma ago. Although the origin of the deposits was probably related to contemporary climate conditions, the emplacement of some deposits, or even their formation, may have been contributed by impact events. After lineated valley fill formation, the region was resurfaced several times, probably because of changes in regional climatic or endogenic circumstances.

Study of ice-related flow features around Tanaica Montes, Mars: Implications for late amazonian debris-covered glaciation

Lobate debris aprons (LDA) and lineated valley fill (LVF) have been broadly recognized in the mid-latitudes of Mars and their subsequent analyses using data from the SHAllow RADar (SHARAD) instrument has suggested evidence for contemporary ice preserved beneath these features. In this study, we conduct detailed characterization of newly identified LDA flow units within the Tanaica Montes region (39.55˚ N, 269.17˚ E) of Mars to assess and understand the similarities in their emplacement with respect to LDA flow units mapped in other regions of Mars. We utilize the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter (MRO) Context Camera (CTX) images and SHAllow RADar (SHARAD) datasets for geomorphic and subsurface analysis and Mars Global Surveyor (MGS) Mars Orbiter Laser Altimeter (MOLA) point tracks for topographic analysis. Geomorphic observation of LDA flow units surrounding the montes flanks and massif walls reveal integrated pattern of convergence and divergence and evidence of bending and deflection within the flow lines that resulted in concentric, loop-like flow patterns in the downslope. Brain-terrain texture and craters with varying morphological characteristics (ring-mold type) is suggestive that LDAs may be similar to ice-rich, debris-covered glaciers. MOLA point track based convex-up topographic profiles of LDAs suggest that their thickness vary in the range of ∼100–200 m in both the northwestern and southeastern portions of study region. Further, the slope values of mapped LDA surfaces within the study region are within ∼0.1˚–4˚. The extent of mapped LDAs within the study region is such that some of the low elevation (∼0.8–1.3 km) portions of montes flanks are surrounded by relatively less extent (up to ∼0.5–0.8 km) of LDA flow units. Geomorphic and topographic evidence for flow units that appear to be superposed on the main LDA body collectively suggest the possibility of episodic glacial activity in the region. Furthermore, based on the alignment of subsurface reflectors with the surrounding plains when a permittivity of ice (3.2) is assumed and the radargram is depth-corrected, we infer that some of the portions of LDA flow units have preserved ice in their subsurface up to ∼300–500 m depth. Crater size frequency distribution of craters counted on LDA surface indicates that the best-fit age is ∼110 Ma. In addition, the LDA surfaces exhibit different best-fit ages for different types of crater morphologies (bowl-shaped, ring-mold and infilled craters) included in the crater count statistics. Together, these observations and the interpretations suggest that most, if not all, of the LDAs in the study region are like classical LDAs mapped in other regions of Mars (e.g. along the mid-latitude dichotomy boundary and eastern Hellas region). These results indicate that a widespread accumulation and preservation of ice has occurred during the Late Amazonian as suggested in previous studies.

Landscapes of polyphase glaciation: eastern Hellas Planitia, Mars

The mid-latitudes of Mars host numerous ice-related landforms that bear many similarities to terrestrial ice masses. This collection of landforms, termed viscous flow features (VFFs), is composed primarily of H2O ice and shows evidence of viscous deformation. Recent work has hypothesised that VFFs are the diminishing remains of once larger ice masses, formed during one or more previous ice ages, and the landscape therefore records evidence of polyphase glaciation. However, debate persists concerning the former extent and volume of ice, and style of former glaciations. The accompanying map (1:100,000 scale) presents a geomorphic and structural assessment of a glacial landscape in eastern Hellas Planitia, Mars. Here, we present a description of the features identified, comprising four geomorphic units (plains, lobate debris apron, degraded glacial material, and glacier-like form) and 16 structures (craters, moraine-like ridges, flow unit boundaries, arcuate transvers structures, longitudinal surface structures, ring-mold craters, terraces, medial moraine-like ridges, raised textured areas, flow-parallel and flow-transverse lineations, crevasses and crevasse traces, and ridge clusters).

Geomorphological characterisation and interpretation of a mid-latitude glacier-like form: Hellas Planitia, Mars

We describe and interpret the surface terrain types associated with a widely-reported ∼4 km long, mid-latitude martian viscous flow feature (VFF). The feature is located in the southern hemisphere, on the poleward-facing rim of a ∼60 km-diameter crater in eastern Hellas Planitia. High Resolution Imaging Science Experiment (HiRISE) images, analysed in both 2D and 3D, reveal that the upper margin of the feature is bounded by steep (∼30°) headwalls, typically some tens of metres high, that are formed from unconsolidated material and characterised by a series of slope–parallel linear incisions. Below these incised headwalls, the feature flows at a general angle of ∼10° from a broad upper basin to a confined lower tongue that is bounded by a nested sequence of elongate raised ridges. These characteristics are typical of several VFFs in the region and are strikingly similar to moraine-bounded valley glaciers on Earth, and we sub-classify this feature as a ‘glacier-like form’ (GLF) 1 This terminology contrasts slightly with Hartmann’s original usage in that we refer to the feature as a ‘form’ rather than a ‘flow’. This preference is based on several considerations, including that: (i) although inferred, flow has not yet been measured at such features, (ii) supplementary (basal) motion components cannot yet be ruled out, and (iii) the term ‘flow’ can refer to both a form and a process of ice-mass motion, which could lead to confusion. 1 . The GLF comprises five distinctive surface terrain types that contrast sharply with surface characteristics outside its bounding moraines. Four of these terrains (scaly terrain, polygonized terrain, linear terrain and mound-and-tail terrain) are located within the GLF’s innermost bounding moraine, while the fifth (rectilinear-ridge terrain) is located between its frontal moraines. These terrains are mapped, characterised and associated with possible mechanisms of formation to draw inferences about the GLF’s glaciology and glacial history. This analysis suggests that the GLF reached its maximal extent in the geologically-recent past, and that it may have been partially wet-based at that time. Subsequent to this phase, the GLF experienced an extended period of general recession that has been punctuated by several episodes of still-stand or advance. Currently, the GLF’s basin appears to be composed of a lower zone that is dominated by an exposed former glacier bed and an upper zone that may still contain a now-degraded and dust-mantled viscous mass, similar to many partially-glacierized basins on Earth.

Harmakhis Vallis Source Region, Mars: Insights into the recent geothermal history based on geological mapping

The mapped area of Harmakhis Vallis, at the eastern Hellas Planitia region (35°30–42°50′S; 91°00–97°30′E), covers the surface area of about 212,000 km 2. The region displays an enhanced modification of the initial topography formed by the Hellas impact. The long and complex history of degradation and alteration involves mass-wasting processes, volcanism and fluvial activity, confronting effects of climate-induced slow mass-wasting processes to effects caused by temporary, catastrophic events (impact cratering, volcanism, etc.). Geological mapping at scale of 1:1,500,000 (full scale at 1:540,000) have been carried out on multiple co-registered data sets available from the past and ongoing orbiter missions to Mars. The mapped geomorphic features of small- and medium-scales reveal in detail events that shaped the topography of the region throughout history, providing specific constraints on the geologic and climatic history of the region. This study highlights events from the most recent Martian history, including fluvial activity recorded in relation to a debris apron flanking Centauri Montes, and evidence of recent positive geothermal anomalies of a high heat-flux with relatively small spatial extents, on the timescale of several million years ago.

The Circum-Hellas Volcanic Province, Mars: Assessment of wrinkle-ridged plains

Wrinkle-ridged plains, common on the terrestrial planets, are inferred to form by tectonic deformation of volcanic or sedimentary surfaces. If wrinkle-ridged plains adjacent to volcanic features originated from volcanic activity associated with the features, then the plains should have similar ages to the volcanic features, as well as other morphological or compositional indicators of volcanism. We test this hypothesis on several regions of wrinkle-ridged plains bounding the Circum-Hellas Volcanic Province (CHVP). We constructed THEMIS daytime-IR mosaics (spatial resolution 100 m/pixel) and performed crater counts to determined cratering model formation ages of these regions. We found ages of 3.4–3.7 Ga for SE Malea Planum, 3.6–3.7 Ga for W Promethei Terra, 3.5–3.7 Ga for Hesperia Planum, and 3.6–3.8 Ga for the eastern Hellas basin floor, all of which are contemporaneous with the formation of the major volcanic edifices (3.6–3.8 Ga) in the CHVP. Although examination of available MOC, CTX, HiRISE, THEMIS, and HRSC data shows few examples of features definitive of a volcanic origin of these wrinkle-ridged plains, HRSC true color images (50–100 m/pixel) show that large areas of these plains have a dark blue–black color, consistent with previous Viking and Mars Express HRSC and OMEGA color-spectral studies indicative of basaltic compositions. However, in some areas this color may be due to aeolian mantles rather than underlying bedrock. Thus, we cannot demonstrate unequivocally that these wrinkle-ridged plains are volcanic, beyond the synchronicity of their formation ages with those of the CHVP volcanoes. Nevertheless, if these wrinkle-ridged plains were originally formed by volcanic activity, or other processes induced by volcanic activity, then the inclusion of these regions brings the size of the CHVP to > 4.86 × 106 km 2, comparable in size to the Elysium volcanic province. Thus, the CHVP may have been a dominant source of volcanism early in Martian history.

Dike indicators in the Hadriaca Patera–Promethei Terra region, Mars

The eastern Hellas basin rim has been highly modified by a multitude of both volcanic and fluvial processes. It is covered by a large part of the Circum-Hellas Volcanic Province, consisting of the volcanic plains of Hesperia Planum and western Promethei Terra, as well as the two central volcanoes Hadriaca and Tyrrhena Patera and their associated lava flows. Large outflow channels of Dao, Niger, Harmakhis, Reull and Teviot Valles dissect the wrinkle ridged plains, postdating the major volcanic events. The origin of these outflow channels is still ambiguous, as the mobilization mechanism for the underground volatile reservoirs has yet to be revealed. Due to the proximity of the volcanic structures, many previous studies have suggested via models that the released ice or ground water was mobilized due to endogenic heating from magmatic activity in the region. To find evidence of this, we conducted a systematic search for any magmatic intrusions at 50 m/pixel resolution. This paper provides detailed mapping of several areas where we found features which we interpret to be dikes, and shows the overall distribution of such structures in the eastern Hellas rim region. The Hadriaca Patera volcano flanks exhibit a concentric pattern of linear ridges and fractures, indicative of a vast ring dike system. The dikes occupy mostly the area near the summit and the Hellas-facing flank, extending there for over 400 km away from the caldera. A Hadriaca-radial dike swarm pattern is observed extending southwards from the volcano, composed of isolated parallel linear ridge group outcrops and cut by the Valles canyons. An additional isolated dike ridge group exists south of lower Reull Valles, possibly controlled by the Tyrrhena Patera volcano some 1300 km away. All dikes within the study region are roughly Late Hesperian in age, either predating the Valles formation or being roughly concurrent with them. In total, 500 dike segments were identified, with a combined length of ~ 2500 km. Since ~ 90% of the dikes are ridges, they suggest that the entire region has undergone large-scale erosion of at least a few tens of meters to expose the dikes. The dike orientations were most probably controlled by the volcanic centers and possibly partly by a Hellas-concentric fracture pattern.

Regionally compartmented groundwater flow on Mars

Groundwater flow on Mars likely contributed to the formation of several types of morphologic and mineralogic features, including chaotic terrains, valley networks, Meridiani Planum geologic units and, potentially, sulfate and phyllosilicate deposits. A central issue for these features is the spatial scale of groundwater flow required for their formation. For groundwater simulation purposes, a global Martian aquifer has frequently been assumed, but the validity of this assumption has not been tested. Chaotic terrains, thought to have formed owing to the disruption of a cryosphere under high aquifer pore pressures, provide the basis for such a test. Specifically, we use groundwater models to predict regions of cryosphere disruption due to recharge‐driven pore pressure increases, and we compare these regions to observed Martian chaotic terrains. Our results suggest that a globally connected aquifer cannot give rise to cryosphere disruption at the two locations where large chaotic terrains are observed (the circum‐Chryse region and the eastern Hellas Planitia). Conversely, modeled cryosphere disruption occurs in locations such as Amazonis Planitia and west Hellas Planitia where no supporting evidence is present, suggesting again that groundwater flow was likely regionally compartmented. Furthermore, the consistent occurrence of modeled breakouts in the Valles Marineris canyon system suggests that large‐scale fractures there likely discharged most of the groundwater required for circum‐Chryse outflow channel formation, with only minor contributions from chaotic terrains. The fractures are close to a likely source of recharge over Tharsis, and their low elevations lead to high pore pressures even if groundwater flow is regionally compartmented.

Degradation of mid-latitude craters on Mars

Recent geomorphic, remote sensing, and atmospheric modeling studies have shown evidence for abundant ground ice deposits in the martian mid-latitudes. Numerous potential water/ice-rich flow features have been identified in craters in these regions, including arcuate ridges, gullies, and small flow lobes. Previous studies (such as in Newton Basin) have shown that arcuate ridges and gullies are mainly found in small craters ( ∼ 2 – 30 km in diameter). These features are located on both pole-facing and equator-facing crater walls, and their orientations have been found to be dependent on latitude. We have conducted surveys of craters > 20 km in diameter in two mid-latitude regions, one in the northern hemisphere in Arabia Terra, and one in the southern hemisphere east of Hellas basin. In these regions, prominent lobes, potentially ice-rich, are commonly found on the walls of craters with diameters between ∼20–100 km. Additional water/ice-rich features such as channels, valleys, alcoves, and debris aprons have also been found in association with crater walls. In the eastern Hellas study region, channels were found to be located primarily on pole-facing walls, whereas valleys and alcoves were found primarily on equator-facing walls. In the Arabia Terra study region, these preferences are less distinct. In both study regions, lobate flows, gullies, and arcuate ridges were found to have pole-facing orientation preferences at latitudes below 45° and equator-facing orientation preferences above 45°, similar to preferences previously found for gullies and arcuate ridges in smaller craters. Interrelations between the features suggest they all formed from the mobilization of accumulated ice-rich materials. The dependencies of orientations on latitude suggest a relationship to differences in total solar insolation along the crater walls. Differences in slope of the crater wall, differences in total solar insolation with respect to wall orientation, and variations in topography along the crater rim can explain the variability in morphology of the features studied. The formation and evolution of these landforms may best be explained by multiple cycles of deposition of ice-rich material during periods of high obliquity and subsequent modification and transport of these materials down crater walls.

Radar Sounding Evidence for Buried Glaciers in the Southern Mid-Latitudes of Mars

Lobate features abutting massifs and escarpments in the middle latitudes of Mars have been recognized in images for decades, but their true nature has been controversial, with hypotheses of origin such as ice-lubricated debris flows or glaciers covered by a layer of surface debris. These models imply an ice content ranging from minor and interstitial to massive and relatively pure. Soundings of these deposits in the eastern Hellas region by the Shallow Radar on the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter reveal radar properties entirely consistent with massive water ice, supporting the debris-covered glacier hypothesis. The results imply that these glaciers formed in a previous climate conducive to glaciation at middle latitudes. Such features may collectively represent the most extensive nonpolar ice yet recognized on Mars.

Cold‐climate modification of Martian landscapes: A case study of a spatulate debris landform in the Hellas Montes Region, Mars

We use spaceborne image and topographic data of Mars for a geomorphological study of the origin, development, and postemplacement modification of a 30‐km‐long spatulate landform in the Hellas Montes area, east of Hellas Planitia. The area is characterized by an abundance of lobate debris aprons, all of which have been interpreted as a result of creep and viscous deformation of rock and ice mixtures that make the eastern Hellas Planitia assemblages a type location for possible Martian rock glaciers. The spatulate landform has been discussed controversially in the past. Explanations range from a rock glacier to a wet debris avalanche or debris flow origin. This work scrutinizes arguments provided in earlier works and presents evidence that a landslide origin of the spatulate landform, connected with a sector collapse of a volcanic construct, is conceivable. We also find extensive observational evidence that the landslide has recently undergone or is still undergoing significant postemplacement modifications, which are characteristic of rock glaciers in periglacial environments. Creep deformation as well as disintegration of the original surface by thermokarstic degradation is considered to have obliterated impact craters and, in consequence, create a seemingly younger age. Similar processes are considered to be common on Mars under current climatic conditions. Our results imply that the strong and possible long‐term modification of landforms on Mars by cold‐climate processes often hinders the identification of their original nature and complicates the assessment of true ages.

Formation of Glaciers on Mars by Atmospheric Precipitation at High Obliquity

Surface conditions on Mars are currently cold and dry, with water ice unstable on the surface except near the poles. However, geologically recent glacierlike landforms have been identified in the tropics and the midlatitudes of Mars. The ice has been proposed to originate from either a subsurface reservoir or the atmosphere. We present high-resolution climate simulations performed with a model designed to simulate the present-day Mars water cycle but assuming a 45 degrees obliquity as experienced by Mars a few million years ago. The model predicts ice accumulation in regions where glacier landforms are observed, on the western flanks of the great volcanoes and in the eastern Hellas region. This agreement points to an atmospheric origin for the ice and reveals how precipitation could have formed glaciers on Mars.

Styles and timing of volatile‐driven activity in the eastern Hellas region of Mars

Recent analyses of Mars Global Surveyor and Mars Odyssey data sets provide new insights into the geologic evolution of the eastern Hellas region of Mars, in particular, the role of volatiles. Here, we present results of our recent work and integrate these with previous studies by various investigators to provide a synthesis of the history of volatile‐driven activity of the region. We utilize high‐resolution images from the Mars Orbiter Camera and Thermal Emission Imaging System combined with Mars Orbiter Laser Altimeter digital elevation models and profiles to examine fluvial systems that dissect the circum‐Hellas highlands, to characterize stages in the development of the Dao, Niger, Harmakhis, and Reull Valles canyon systems, and to evaluate evidence for ancient lakes in Hellas Planitia. The occurrence of valley networks, dissected highland crater rims, and crater interior deposits such as layered plateaus suggests widespread ancient degradation of the circum‐Hellas highlands. Canyon development, which represents subsequent more localized activity, may have included an early fluvial phase followed by the collapse and sapping dominated stages that, along with recent wall erosion and floor resurfacing, produced the currently observed morphologies. The prominent role of collapse and sapping along the east rim of Hellas, along with the presence of numerous channels extending toward the basin and sequences of finely layered deposits along the basin rim, suggests a volatile‐rich substrate across a broad depositional shelf. The east rim of the basin was an accumulation zone for atmospheric volatiles and/or the edge of volatile‐rich deposits associated with the basin floor. This evidence combined with topographic data and cratered terrain preservation around the basin is consistent with a lacustrine period or periods in early Martian history. The style, magnitude, and spatial extent of volatile‐driven activity in eastern Hellas have varied considerably with time, and these variations may represent a transition from a water‐ to an ice‐dominated surface environment.

Surface characteristics and degradational history of debris aprons in the Tempe Terra/Mareotis fossae region of Mars

We have documented the surface characteristics and degradational history of a population of 65 lobate debris aprons in the Tempe Terra/Mareotis fossae region of Mars. These aprons were compared to other martian debris aprons to evaluate similarities and differences among different populations, which can provide insight into the dominant controls on apron development. Tempe/Mareotis debris aprons, found at the bases of isolated or clustered massifs, escarpments, and crater interior walls, were studied using Viking Orbiter, Mars Global Surveyor, and Mars Odyssey datasets in a GIS database. Six textures related to degradation of apron surfaces are identified in MOC images, and they are divided into two groups: an upper-surface group and a lower-surface group. Degradation occurs within an inferred smooth, upper surface mantle of ice and debris, producing a sequence of pitted, ridge and valley, and knobby textures of the upper-surface group. Where upper-surface materials have been removed, smooth and ridged textures of the lower-surface group are exposed. Degradation to various depths may expose lower-surface materials, which may consist of the main apron mass, remnants of mantling deposits, or both. A combination of geologic processes may have caused the degradation, including ice sublimation, ice melt, and eolian activity. Apron surfaces have lower maximum thermal inertias and mean surface temperatures than adjacent plains surfaces, which may be explained by the trapping of unconsolidated materials in low-lying pits and valleys formed by surface degradation or from the disruption of crusts on degraded portions of apron surfaces. One feature observed only on Tempe/Mareotis debris aprons are broad ridges, which mimic the shape of massif bases for tens of kilometers. We propose these to be constructional features that could have formed during cycles of increased debris production. Apron morphometric parameters including area, volume, slope, thickness, relief, and H / L , were compiled and the results show that Tempe/Mareotis aprons have average surface areas, volumes, and frontal thicknesses that are ∼2–3 times smaller than eastern Hellas aprons. Within the Tempe/Mareotis population escarpment-related aprons are larger than massif-related aprons, suggesting that aprons with larger source areas have potentially greater volatile accumulation, translating into longer apron travel distances and lower H / L values.

Millochau crater, Mars: Infilling and erosion of an ancient highland impact crater

The geology and stratigraphy of Millochau crater (21.4° S, 275° W), located in the highlands of Tyrrhena Terra, Mars, are documented through geomorphic analyses and geologic mapping. Crater size-frequency distributions and superposition relationships are used to constrain relative ages of geologic units and determine the timing and duration of the geologic processes that modified Millochau rim materials and emplaced deposits on Millochau's floor. Crater size-frequency distributions show a Middle Noachian age for rim materials and Middle Noachian to Early Hesperian ages for most of the interior deposits. Valley networks and gullies incised within Millochau's rim materials and interior wall, respectively, indicate fluvial activity was an important erosional process. Millochau contains an interior plateau, offset northeast of Millochau's center, which rises up to 400 m above the surrounding crater floor and slopes downward to the south and west. Layers exposed along the northern and eastern scarp boundaries of the plateau are tens to hundreds of meters thick and laterally continuous in MOC images. These layers suggest most materials within Millochau were emplaced by sedimentary processes (e.g., fluvial or eolian), with the potential for lacustrine deposition in shallow transient bodies of water and contributions of volcanic airfall. Mass wasting may have also contributed significant quantities of material to Millochau's interior, especially to the deposits surrounding the plateau. Superposition relationships combined with impact crater statistics indicate that most deposition and erosion of Millochau's interior deposits is ancient, which implies that fluvial activity in this part of Tyrrhena Terra is much older than in the eastern Hellas region. Eolian processes mobilized sediment to form complicated patterns of long- and short-wavelength dunes, whose emplacement is controlled by local topography. These deposits are some of the youngest within Millochau (Amazonian) and eolian modification may be ongoing.

Tropical to mid-latitude snow and ice accumulation, flow and glaciation on Mars

Images from the Mars Express HRSC (High-Resolution Stereo Camera) of debris aprons at the base of massifs in eastern Hellas reveal numerous concentrically ridged lobate and pitted features and related evidence of extremely ice-rich glacier-like viscous flow and sublimation. Together with new evidence for recent ice-rich rock glaciers at the base of the Olympus Mons scarp superposed on larger Late Amazonian debris-covered piedmont glaciers, we interpret these deposits as evidence for geologically recent and recurring glacial activity in tropical and mid-latitude regions of Mars during periods of increased spin-axis obliquity when polar ice was mobilized and redeposited in microenvironments at lower latitudes. The data indicate that abundant residual ice probably remains in these deposits and that these records of geologically recent climate changes are accessible to future automated and human surface exploration.